OUTLINES OF 
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

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OUTLINES 



OF 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



BY 



ARTHUR C. PERRY, JR., Ph.D. 

AUTHOR OF "THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 1 
"PROBLEMS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL," ETC. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1912 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1912, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



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PREFACE 

This volume is offered with the thought that 
it may be found acceptable as a textbook in the 
study of School Administration. Having this 
use in mind, I have followed a spiral plan involv- 
ing repeated review of the systems of the various 
nations treated, instead of one which would dis- 
pose of the schools country by country. Even 
where such a textbook is not needed, I trust that 
the volume may yet be found of value for refer- 
ence. I also venture to hope that it will be of 
interest to the general reader who desires to 
acquaint himself with the salient features of the 
schools of our own and other leading nations. 

For both general reader and special student, 
I have endeavored to lighten the subject by 
judicious handling of the statistical matter. Thus 
I have not hesitated to translate the exact figures 
of official reports into " round numbers " or even 
generalized statements whenever such changes 
involved no loss of substantial accuracy. 



VI PREFACE 

My indebtedness to those who have written at 
length on the many specific topics which this 
book groups together and aims to unify is readily 
seen from the liberal use of the quotation mark. 
I have quoted, not only in order to place the 
particular citations before the reader, but also to 
direct his attention to the bibliography of the 
subject and to tempt him to further study. 

In this connection I must express my apprecia- 
tion of the services of those who, in the libraries 
of this city, have patiently aided me in my own 
quest for material. More particularly am I in- 
debted to Dr. C. C. Williamson, in charge of the 
economics collection of the New York Public 
Library, and to Miss Mary J. Thackray and her 
corps of gracious associates at the Saratoga 
Branch of the Brooklyn Public Library. Finally, 
for wise counsel and effective assistance, gener- 
ously given, I desire to thank Dr. Gustave 
Straubenmuller, Associate Superintendent of 
Schools, New York, and Miss Mabel W. Haines 
and Miss Mabel F. Jones, both of Public School 
Eighty-five, Brooklyn. 

ARTHUR C. PERRY, JR. 

Brooklyn, New York, 
November, 191 1. 



CONTENTS 



Preface 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER 

I. Introduction 



II. 

III. 



Education and Schooling 
The State and Education 



PAGE 
V 



I 

6 
16 



IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 



XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 
XVI. 



PART I. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 
a. The Organic Structure 

Preview 31 

The United States 53 

Germany 86 

France 105 

Great Britain and Ireland 116 

Other Countries . . . . . . .133 

Review 157 



b. The Curriculum 
General View . 
Infant Education . 
Elementary Education 
Secondary Education 
Higher Education . 
Vocational Education 



175 
185 
194 
214 
236 
261 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



c. The Norm of Public Education 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XVII. General View 303 

XVIII. The United States 312 

XIX. Other Countries 329 

PART II. SCHOOL DIRECTION 

XX. The United States 343 

XXI. Other Countries 354 

PART III 

XXII. School Supervision 375 

PART IV 

XXIII. School Management 389 

PART V. CLASS MANAGEMENT 

XXIV. The Training of the Teacher . . . .401 
XXV. The Status of the Teacher . . . . 415 

Bibliography 434 

Index 445 



OUTLINES OF 
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

" As music is not a matter of strings or keys or instruments, 
and as true oratory does not depend upon the language or 
color of the orator, so administration is not a matter of forms 
or method. In its higher sense, it is an atmosphere, an en- 
folding and life-giving power, which, consciously and uncon- 
sciously, acts upon and sways every one within its field of action, 
and nerves him to do the best that is in him for the common 
cause." — Birdseye, "The Reorganization of our Colleges," 
p. 165. 

Professor Horne, in his valuable " Philosophy 
of Education," 1 shows that " there are four points 
of view from which the study of education, in 
the narrow sense of the term, may be profitably 
undertaken. Education has a history, an ideal, 
a practice, and a philosophy." For him the 
" practice of education " presents three practical 
problems: (1) how to organize a school or a 
school system; (2) how to manage, in which the 
question of discipline is uppermost; and (3) how 

1 Macmillan, 1904, pp. 7 et seq. 



2 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to supervise. Without giving unqualified assent 
to this threefold subdivision, it may be said, in 
general, that it is this practice of education, as 
distinguished from the other three phases, that 
constitutes the scope of this volume. Although 
there is a certain interdependence of the four 
phases, shown for instance by the fact that the 
character of the practice of education depends 
very largely upon the educational ideal, the gen- 
eral term School Administration is here used to 
encompass all the formal and official relation- 
ships which the pupil sustains toward those in- 
terested in his education. 

In America, the trend toward centralization in 
the various departments of human progress has 
been particularly accentuated and accelerated in 
recent years. Population has drifted into great 
centers, so that a bird's-eye view of our country 
must remind one of our experiment in physics 
which shows the congregation of iron filings 
about magnetic poles, the fact being that to-day 
about one third of our population is urban. 1 We 

1 To be exact, in 1900, for the United States, 32.4 per cent, 
varying greatly by states, from 91.6, Rhode Island; 86.9, Massa- 
chusetts; 71.2, New York; 67.5, New Jersey, to 5.3, Mississippi; 
5.0, Oklahoma. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

may not overlook the fact that there are potent 
influences already urging the tide of migration 
countryward, — or at least suburbanward, — and 
it is possible that a century hence school organi- 
zation, like all other political organizations, will, 
on this account, take on quite a different form. 
This, however, is but speculation, and we concern 
ourselves with the present facts. Politically, 
centralization has steadily progressed since the 
Civil War, with federal powers strengthened, ex- 
ecutive departments successfully assertive, and 
the principle of concentration of authority ad- 
vanced all along the line. Industrially, also, we 
note that the compact corporation or "trust" is 
the prevailing form of organization. It is not 
surprising therefore to see that, educationally, 
our schools are fast giving place to our school 
systems, and School Administration has emerged 
as one of our educational problems. 

With this development of the problem itself 
there has been a corresponding development in 
the study of the problem and in the bibliography 
which both results from and helps to guide that 
study. School Administration as a subject of 
study is an extremely modern one. As late as 



4 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

1875 we find Professor Payne, in his "Chapters 
on School Administration," devoting space to the 
" nature and value of superintendence " and " the 
art of grading schools." The necessity for school 
supervision was subject to discussion, the plea 
for scientific direction of schools was on the de- 
fensive, and the graded school was scarcely more 
than an experiment. Even in 1881, Dr. Baldwin 
gave but one chapter of the ten in his "Art of 
School Management " to the graded school. It 
was not until 1903 that educational bibliography 
recognized the distinction between school and 
class, which it did then by the publication of 
Superintendent Taylor's modest volume entitled 
"The Art of Class Management." Since then, 
this distinction has been emphasized by some 
half-dozen writers, 1 and we may confidently as- 
sume that henceforth it will never be forgotten 
in any discussion of schools and school systems. 
We had to wait until 1904 for our first published 
volume recognizing the modern problems of 
School Administration in the large, when Super- 

1 For instance : Bagley, " Classroom Management " ; Perry, " The 
Management of a City School " ; Arnold, " School and Class Manage- 
ment " ; Chancellor, " Class Teaching and Management." 



INTRODUCTION 5 

intendent Chancellor gave us his " Our Schools 
— Their Administration and Supervision." 

Even to-day a glance at the courses of instruc- 
tion in the educational departments of our lead- 
ing universities shows how loose is the use of 
terms in the treatment of this subject of the 
"practice" of education. It is the aim of this 
book more definitely to fix the content of these 
terms, and it is the hope of the author that his 
classification may meet favorable recognition. 



CHAPTER II 

EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING 

" We are now engaged in the most stupendous educational, 
social, and economic experiment the world has ever undertaken 
— the experiment of universal education; and whether in the 
end universal education shall prove a blessing or a curse to us 
will depend entirely upon our skill in handling the issues it has 
raised for our solution." — Davenport, " Education for Effi- 
ciency," p. 13. 

The word education is an extremely elastic one 
and may be stretched to the verge of becoming 
a synonym for change or growth. The earliest 
modification of the growing biologic cell is in the 
broadest sense an educational progress. The 
subsequent and continued modifications which in 
their total we call evolution constitute an educa- 
tional process. The constant influence of its 
environment upon any living organism and the 
consequent adjustment of that organism to its 
environment is a process of education. In this 
sense is the brute educated ; his environment 
develops in him, through successive generations, 
a large series of necessary adjustments which 



EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING 7 

become his stock of fundamental instincts. 
When these instincts are operative, the fox, for 
example, is educated, in the fox sense ; when they 
are defective, he is uneducated, and fails as a fox. 
Throughout the whole gamut of subhuman 
species, this education is unconsciously received 
and unconsciously given — there is no education 
in the sense of schooling, unless we speak figura- 
tively and give Dame Nature the title of School 
Mistress to the Universe. 

But when we consider the human species, we 
note that a change has come over this educa- 
tional process. Dame Nature is still at work 
with her adjustment-compelling environment and 
her curriculum of instincts ; but for Man, educa- 
tion means more than mere submission to the 
battering of environmental forces. The indi- 
vidual has become a member of a social group ; 
he is not merely a detached specimen of his 
species, but he is also a socius, a unit in society. 
He is subject not only to the laws imposed by 
Nature directly upon individual man, but also to 
those which govern the socii in his collective 
group. Through countless generations human- 
ity has been accumulating for him a stock of 



8 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

knowledge with which he must overlay his primal 
instincts. Acquisition from this stock is now a 
necessary part of his education, and his education 
is now received, not from Nature directly, but at 
the hands of the very humanity which is respon- 
sible for the accumulation of the educational 
material. Even yet, however, education may not 
reach the schooling stage. The savage, though 
in large measure ruled by instincts, is yet the 
creature of his social environment, and must re- 
ceive an educational impress which shall carry 
him beyond his instincts. This education he 
gains through constant attrition with his fellow- 
socii, wherein there may be but little of formal 
schooling. Were he first to come to conscious- 
ness alone on a desert island, his life would be 
but little more than that of the brute, and his 
education little more than the unwrapping of his 
bundle of instincts. But among his fellows he is 
influenced by the accumulated habits, traditions, 
and wisdom of the tribe, and he must acquire 
this store of mental equipment or fail of recogni- 
tion as a member of his social group. 

Modern society, with its more complex struc- 
ture and its more intelligent appreciation of the 



EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING g 

needs of mankind, has developed the institution 
of the school. The school is an organization 
through which the individual is subjected to an 
artificial environment in order that he may the 
most economically and expeditiously accomplish 
adjustment. Instead of leaving him to happen 
haphazard upon the experiences which shall serve 
to educate him, the school deliberately creates 
artificial experiences and systematically trains 
him to meet them. Thus not only is he saved 
the immense loss of time which he would sustain 
in hit-or-miss acquisition, but further he is early 
qualified to take his turn in rendering social serv- 
ice to his fellows. 

The creation of the school by civilized society 
has resulted from the recognition of the need of 
the institution, together with the development of 
the desire to meet this need. We have, then, in 
passing, to note first the factors which contrib- 
uted to make the school necessary, and secondly 
the growth of the sentiment which urged society 
to create the school. 

As to the first, society has formed many 
institutions, — the State, Business, Property, etc., 
— and each imposes upon the individual member 



IO SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of society the necessity of acquiring its own 
institutional group of knowledge. His brute in- 
stincts may serve him well enough for the lowest 
plane of self-preservation, but he can find no 
place as a part of the State unless he understands 
the State, he cannot profit from business unless 
he is versed in business, he can neither hold 
property himself nor respect the property of 
others unless he has learned the rules concerning 
property. For any satisfactory existence, he 
must be educated along these new lines, these 
lines of civilization. Moreover, mankind has in- 
vented an oral and written machinery for facilitat- 
ing intercourse and for the transmission of the 
racial records from one generation to another. 
Individual man, if he is to have any material 
share in the benefits of civilization, must acquire 
the art of facile manipulation of this machinery. 
As to the second, while institutions have been 
developing, there has taken place a remarkable 
transition in human sentiment. We can in no 
wise leave out of account the phenomenon of 
the decline of egoism and the ascent of altruism. 
Altruism is the great paradox of Nature. Grad- 
ually, through the lengthening period of infancy, 



EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING II 

man found himself under the necessity of devot- 
ing more and more of his thought to the pro- 
tection of others. From realization of his 
responsibility for the welfare of his dependent 
offspring it was a natural transition to considera- 
tion for the rights of those outside his immediate 
family. To-day we see men everywhere volun- 
tarily assuming some measure of responsibility 
for their less fortunate fellow-men. This prin- 
ciple of altruism is clearly recognized in modern 
thought and action. And herein lies the para- 
dox: in evolving altruism Nature seems to have 
worked out the destruction of her own method. 

In the mists of the past man emerged from the 
subhuman species by virtue of Nature's method 
of the survival of the fittest. One result of man's 
development is the appearance of this sentiment 
of altruism, which in its very essence tends to 
interfere with the ancient law of the survival of 
the fittest. For example, in the jungle, the leop- 
ard who breaks his leg drops by the wayside and 
is trampled on by his fellows. Thus is the breed 
of leopards improved through the elimination of 
those who are careless as to their own physical 
protection. But with humanity, the man who 



12 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

drinks himself into the gutter is lifted up by his 
altruistic fellows, set upon his feet, and although 
physically and morally " unfit " is aided to survive 
and to perpetuate his unfitness in the person of 
his descendants. Unless we can discern a hope 
by way of the still youthful science of eugenics, 
the self-inflicted doom of the race would seem 
inevitable. This, however, is aside from the main 
issue, which is to recognize the relation of 
altruism to education. 

Thus we see that one result of the rise of the 
social institutions and the advance of the senti- 
ment of altruism has been the development of 
the special institution which we call the school. 
Moreover, as each social group has developed its 
institutions along lines peculiar to itself and has 
developed the altruistic sentiment to a distinctive 
degree, it follows that the resultant schools as- 
sume a characteristic form which is dependent 
upon these two factors. The form of education 
provided by the school in any nation is subject 
to wide variation dependent upon the varying 
educational ideals in vogue for the given time 
and place. 

Among the many aims which have enlisted ed- 



EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING 1 3 

ucational thought and controlled educational poli- 
cies, some may be noted in particular. The idea 
of Utility, of teaching effectiveness in " making 
a living," has had persistent hold since before the 
days of ancient Rome. To acquire Knowledge 
for the sake of knowledge, for the joy of acquisi- 
tion and the pride of possession, to amass facts, has 
appealed to many whose bent is toward classifica- 
tion and science. To achieve Culture, to become 
the cultivated scholar, to know and to be all that a 
"perfect gentleman" should know and should be, 
has been the ambition equally of the ancient Greek 
and the modern Oxonian. To pursue education 
for the sake of mental Discipline, regarding the 
subject matter of small account, provided only 
that the mind as a whole is being forged into an 
effective tool, has been the ideal held forth by those 
committed to the doctrine of formal discipline. 
The theory of Harmonious Development, based 
upon the assumption of the existence of mental 
" faculties " and the desirability of training them 
all with equal diligence, has captivated the vision 
of Plato and Rousseau and Froebel and a host of 
others. The formation of Character, the devel- 
opment of the will, and the subjection of the man 



14 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to habits of self-control, has been held as the 
great essential by Aristotle of old and the Her- 
bartians of new. The thought of education as 
Adjustment to environment has been brought to 
the front by modern science. Social Efficiency, 
as an end and aim of education, has followed the 
awakening of men to their social responsibilities. 
The vision of Soul Liberalization has appeared to 
those who see in education " nothing but religion 
enlightened and energized, but always and essen- 
tially the religion of the faith that all are the sons 
of God, and that as long as he lives, even the 
worst may be redeemed." 1 

Throughout these different ideals we note the 
conflict between the interest of the individual and 
that of society. The question whether Man exists 
for the State or the State for Man has been an- 
swered divergently throughout historic time and 
geographic space. Shall the man educate himself 
that the State may endure or shall the State edu- 
cate man that he may prosper? In the history of 
education we note these two opposing aims de- 
pendent in turn upon the opposing conception of 

1 William E. Chancellor, " A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and 
Values," Houghton, Mifflin, 1907, p. III. 



EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING 1 5 

the State. In Oriental education, typified by the 
Chinese system, we have seen a definite and for- 
mal purpose — instruction in the minutiae of the 
Confucian portfolio of authoritative social and 
ethical regulations — result in the development 
of the State as a collection of individuals in 
themselves unimportant. By contrast, in the old 
Greek education, constant throughout the vary- 
ing theories and practices, from Homeric heroics 
to the cultural capture of Rome, from Spartan 
virtue of courage to Athenian worship of beauty, 
from the idealism of Plato to the practicalism of 
Aristotle, the emphasis was put upon the develop- 
ment of the individual as a dignified and integral 
member of the State. 



CHAPTER III 

THE STATE AND EDUCATION 

" The State is the organic body of society ; without it so- 
ciety would be hardly more than a mere abstraction. If the 
name had not been restricted to a single, narrow, extreme, and 
radically mistaken class of thinkers, we ought all to regard our- 
selves and to act as Socialists, believers in the wholesomeness 
and beneficence of the body politic. If the history of society 
proves anything, it proves the absolute naturalness of govern- 
ment, its rootage in the nature of man, its origin in kinship, 
and its identification with all that makes man superior to the 
brute creation." — Woodrow Wilson, "The State," p. 631. 

" It is statistically true that enough of knowledge to be of 
value in increasing the amount and quality of work done, to 
give character, to some extent at least, to a person's tastes and 
aspirations, is a better safeguard against the inroads of crime 
than any code of criminal laws." — Carroll D. Wright. 

The modern State assumes much on behalf of 
the education of the individual. In the United 
States, in France, in Germany, and in many other 
nations, a very small proportion of the pupil en- 
rollment is to be found in the private schools. 

The introduction of the State as the supporter 
and regulator of the institution of the school 
measurably modifies the consideration of educa- 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 1 7 

tional ideals and aims. The education which the 
individual may provide for himself and his own 
may be quite different from that which he may 
properly demand from the State or that which 
the State may concede to him. To word it more 
concretely, I, paying the bills myself, may edu- 
cate my son in accordance with the most ideal 
purpose and ambitious program; whereas, to de- 
mand that my neighbors, constituting the State, 
shall provide this education at the common ex- 
pense, would be ridiculously unreasonable. On 
the other hand, I may be quite careless and indif- 
ferent as to my child's education and fail to make 
any provision therefor whatever; in which case 
my neighbors, the State, for reasons of their own 
may take the matter entirely out of my hands. 

At this point it must be made clear that public 
education is not a right but a privilege. The 
individual has no inherent right to education at 
the expense of his fellows. The Declaration of 
Independence, for instance, cites as the " certain 
unalienable rights," " life, liberty, and the pursuit 
of happiness," but nothing is said of the right to 
an education. The constitution of the State of 
New York, typical of the organic law of all the 



1 8 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

States, reads, " The Legislature shall provide for 
the maintenance and support of a system of free, 
common schools, wherein all the children of this 
State may be educated." (Article IX, Section i.) 
This is quite different from what would be im- 
plied were the section to read: "The natural 
rights of the children of this State to an educa- 
tion shall nowhere be violated." Society, through 
its organized institution, the State, using the 
governmental machinery of the State, decides 
what privileges it is wise for the State to grant 
to its individual members. Among the privi- 
leges are included citizenship, the franchise, and 
this matter of education. Different societies, 
different States, measure these privileges differ- 
ently. For example, all the States of the United 
States grant the franchise to male citizens above 
the age of 2 1 ; in most of Germany the privilege 
is granted to the male citizen only after he reaches 
the age of 25. It is evident that there is no 
special natural and inherent virtue in either the 
age 21 or the age 25. There is nothing in the 
age of 21 which gives the possessor the right to 
demand franchise. Some societies decide that 
the interests of their State are best served by 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 1 9 

permitting their voters to exercise the privilege 
at that age, others decide that the State interest 
demands the withholding of that privilege until 
a more mature age is reached. So it is in the 
matter of education : one society extends the 
privilege far in both directions — downward to 
the kindergarten and upward to the university — 
while another limits it to much less. Moreover, 
most States are not content with offering the 
privilege of education, but find it wise and ex- 
pedient to compel the acceptance of a certain 
measure of education. 

Let us examine into the justification for public 
education. Why should society concern itself 
with the education of its members? Perhaps 
the broadest answer to this question is that society 
recognizes the general obligation which the altru- 
istic philosophy places upon it and realizes that 
this obligation can best be met by its existing 
institution, the State. 1 "The State must because 
the State alone can ; the State has the right be- 

1 " It could probably be shown that those nations in which the 
altruistic tendencies are the strongest and at the same time the 
most rational are in the most stable condition, and give promise of 
retaining their vigor the longest." — M. V. O'Shea, " Social Develop- 
ment and Education," Houghton, Mifflin, 1909, p. 240. 



20 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

cause the State is what it is — the only measure 
of public judgment, the only standard of reason 
actually attained and objectified," 1 or as Governor 
Wilson puts it, " no instrumentality less universal 
in its power and authority can secure popular 
education." 2 

Secondly, society recognizes the necessity for 
the conservation of the institutions which it has 
so laboriously constructed for the preservation of 
the racial and national traditions which make for 
political stability. 3 In the words of Professor 
O'Shea, " a nation of alert minds will discern the 
forces that threaten degeneration in the national 
life, and they should be able to control them ; but 
the majority of the people must be trained so that 

1 G. H. Howison, Educational Review, May, 1893, p. 430. 

2 Woodrow Wilson, "The State," Heath, 1904, p. 638. Cf. 
William E. Chancellor, " A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values 
in Education, 1 ' Houghton, Mifflin, 1907, Chap. 2, advocating the 
organization of the educational institution independently of the State. 

3 " It would seem safe to say that the more liberally a people is 
educated and the more generally education is diffused among the 
whole mass, the more will happiness abound and the more secure 
and effective will be the governmental organization. It would also 
seem safe to say that some education, and that generally diffused, is 
imperatively essential to the life of a well-ordered State, competent 
to promote the ends for which it exists." — Andrew S. Draper, 
Educational Review, Vol. I, p. 27. 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 21 

they can discern these forces and appreciate 
whither they tend. A nation cannot be saved by 
the enlightenment of the few; the attitude and 
appreciation of the majority, after all, determine 
the fate of a nation." 1 

Thirdly and more specifically, we might say 
more egoistically, society recognizes that the 
preservation of the State, the control of its 
members by the State, is more economically and 
satisfactorily accomplished through education 
than without it. This last motive is probably 
the one most clearly recognized by people gener- 
ally. The average taxpayer, who thinks but little 
of altruistic philosophy or the conservation of 
traditions, can well understand that his safety, 
in the police sense, is enhanced by the spread of 
education. He pays his tax for the education 
of his neighbor's children with a degree of cheer- 
fulness because he realizes that it is a form of 
protective insurance — he much prefers, if he 
must live in the neighborhood of those children, 
both now and when they have grown up, that 
they should be law-abiding and intelligent, and 
generally agreeable to meet. " Humanity," says 

1 Op. cit., p. 238. 



22 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

President Thwing, " is learning that it is better 
economy to devote the larger share of its revenue 
to the education of children than to expend it for 
the care of the criminal, the defective, and the 
pauper through a score of years." 1 Putting it 
very practically and most brusquely, it is far less 
expensive to educate a child than it is to jail 
him. 

Society protects itself through Education by 
developing two distinct phases of its relation to 
the schools, which may be called the opportunity 
phase and the compulsory phase. The safety 
of the State depends on the one hand upon the 
continued development of capable and specially 
equipped leaders ; on the other, upon the main- 
tenance of the mass of the people at a satisfacto- 
rily high level of intelligence. The former de- 
mand results in the extension of the privilege 
of education ; the latter, in the imposition of the 
duty of education. 

The degree to which this privilege is extended 
and this duty imposed varies considerably in the 
different social groups, and it is part of the study 

1 Charles F. Thwing, "College Administration," Century, 1900, 
P. 13. 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 23 

of School Administration to note this variation. 
We may term this variable, the Norm of Public 
Education. This norm is expressed for any 
community by the degree of public education 
provided between a maximum of opportunity and 
a minimum of compulsion. Each of these, the 
maximum and the minimum, has its upper and 
lower limits. Concretely, for example, the norm 
for a given State may lie between a maximum of 
opportunity extending from free kindergartens to 
free universities, and a minimum of compulsion 
of six years of elementary grade schooling. This 
is to say, that every one of its members must have 
six years schooling and may have, at public ex- 
pense, a liberal education extending over many 
years from infancy to maturity. 

To carry out the purpose of society in regard 
to education, the State is obliged to work 
through a large number of agencies and agents. 
President Garfield pictured a liberal education as 
a student on one end of a log and Mark Hopkins 
on the other. This may well serve as the type of 
ideal schooling, but in actual practice it is found 
that we have altogether too many students and 
too few Mark Hopkinses to permit of putting this 



24 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ideal into effect as a system of public education. 
The modern State has already discovered that 
only by the organization of its schools into some 
form of system can its purpose in regard to edu- 
cation approach fulfillment. The result has been 
the development of a somewhat complicated series 
of administrative offices with corresponding ad- 
ministrative responsibilities. 

The primary unit of administration is the class, 
the grouping of pupils under the authority of the 
teacher. Between the teacher and the State 
there are several agents necessary. The State 
puts the matter of education into the charge of 
School Boards, Boards of Education, etc., who 
direct educational affairs in accordance with the 
will of the society which they represent. They, 
in turn, transfer the actual supervision of the 
schools to the professional superintendents. 
Between the superintendent and the teacher 
there is need, in all places where population 
centers, for an intermediary in the person of the 
head teacher or principal, as he is usually known 
in America. 

It is not to be forgotten that the center of 
interest in any system is the child, and that the 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 2$ 

principle of service is the only one which can 
justifiably animate any system. The teacher 
holds his position in the service of the pupil ; the 
function of the principal is to serve the teacher 
in his service to pupils; and the function of the 
superintendent is to serve the principal in his 
service to teachers. 1 

To administer is to manage or to conduct. 
Hence School Administration concerns all the 
relationships between the pupil and those who 
serve him. This includes, successively, as we go 
from the State to the pupil : School Organization, 
School Direction, School Supervision, School 
Management, and Class Management. 

School Organization concerns the broad ad- 
ministration of the schools by the State. It is 
the purpose of the State as it finds expression in 
the structure and work of the school. (To or- 
ganize = to give an organic structure, form, order, 
life, to.) 

School Direction concerns the administration 
of the schools by the official bodies created by 

1 See brief study of interrelationships of the school officers, the 
teachers, the pupils, and the community, in John Sogard, " Public 
School Relationships," Hinds, Noble, and Eldredge, 1909. 



26 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the State for this purpose. (To direct = to cause 
to take a certain course.) 

School Supervision concerns the administra- 
tion of the schools by the professional supervisors 
— the school superintendents, commissioners, etc. 
It marks the transfer of authority from the lay 
to the professional bodies. (To supervise = to 
oversee, to inspect with authority.) 

School Management concerns the administra- 
tion of a school by its head, the principal, direc- 
tor, etc. (To manage = to guide by delicate or 
careful treatment.) 

Class Management concerns the administra- 
tion of a class by its teacher. 

The study of School Administration, therefore, 
comprises the study of each and all of these five 
administrative relationships, in pursuing which 
we consider in turn, as occupying the center of 
attention, the State, the School Board, the School 
Superintendent, the Principal, and the Teacher. 

Four countries — Germany, France, England, 
and the United States — are at once educationally 
preeminent and also typical of the chief varia- 
tions in these different departments of School Ad- 
ministration, and so it is these which merit the 



THE STATE AND EDUCATION 27 

largest measure of consideration. The organiza- 
tion of the schools as we find it to-day in any na- 
tion crystallizes the history of education in that 
nation and can be fully apprehended only by a 
sympathetic understanding of the traditions and 
political history of the people it serves. 1 For, as 
Chancellor Brown puts it, " Education in a special 
sense not only springs from the people, but in 
turn creates the people from which it springs. 
Education is its own father." 2 

Germany and the United States, though under 
strikingly different forms of government, are yet 
alike in that each is a federation of States, — of 
kingdoms and other political units in Germany, 
of republics in America. The result is a distinct 
nonfederalization of school direction in both 
countries and a consequent organization of 
schools as State and not national systems. By 

1 Except that, "as in the development of living organisms, parts 
and organs persist which are no longer useful and are sometimes 
inconvenient and even harmful to the individual, so in educational 
systems customs and forms of organization prevail which were well 
adapted to primitive conditions, but are inconvenient and injurious in 
more highly developed systems." — Frank Rollins, ''School Ad- 
ministration in Municipal Governments," Macmillan, 1902, p. 11. 

2 Elmer E. Brown, "Government by Influence," Longmans, 
Green, 1910, p. 122. 



28 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

contrast, the organizing and systematizing genius 
of the French has welded their schools into a na- 
tional solidarity under strong centralized direc- 
tion. 

In proceeding now to the first department of 
school administration, the topic of school organi- 
zation may best be considered under three sub- 
heads: first, the organic structure of the school 
system ; secondly, the educational aim as seen in 
the curriculum ; and thirdly, the norm of public 
education as shown by the degree of opportunity 
offered and of compulsion imposed. 



PART I. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

A. THE ORGANIC STRUCTURE 

Chapter IV. Preview 

Chapter V. The United States 

Chapter VI. Germany 

Chapter VII. France 

Chapter VIII. Great Britain and Ireland 

Chapter IX. Other Countrhss 

Chapter X. Review 



CHAPTER IV 

PREVIEW 

" In view of the growing dependenceof modern states upon 
science and the arts for the attainment of their political ends, 
it has been suggested of late that the institutions of education, 
with the university at their head, may fairly be regarded as a 
fourth branch of government, coordinate with the executive, 
the legislative, and the judicial branches. The service which 
these institutions have to render is so distinctive and so indis- 
pensable that this characterization is not wide of the mark." — 
Brown, " Government by Influence," p. 20. 

A general classification of schools into groups 
may readily be made, although more intimate 
study shows that despite general distinctions 
there is much variation, especially within the 
groups, in different countries, and in fact in 
different parts of the same country. The typical 
divisions, based chiefly upon the age of the pupils 
provided for, are: (1) Infant Schools, (2) Elemen- 
tary Schools, (3) Secondary Schools, (4) Higher 
Institutions ; and as to the character rather than 
the grade of work done, (5) Vocational Institu- 
tions. 

31 



32 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The Infant schools provide for children too 
young to be subjected to the stress of the more 
formal work of the elementary school. In many 
cases, the chief value, as indeed the chief purpose 
of these schools, is that they provide an alternative 
to the education of the street. Especially in con- 
gested city districts, the child of two to six whose 
days are spent in squalid tenements and noisy 
streets rapidly succumbs to influences sordid, not 
to say vicious. When he finally reaches the 
schoolroom, it is with an education of a sad sort 
already acquired and firmly fixed. Thus is the 
school seriously handicapped from the outset in 
its effort to give what it regards as true educa- 
tion. But if it can have at least a few of the 
daily hours of the child during this period of his 
infancy, the school obtains a strategic advantage. 
By this means it has an opportunity to make such 
an impress upon him as shall counteract the 
sinister influences of the street and to bring him 
to his more formal schooling with a valuable pre- 
liminary training. In Italy, for instance, the 
term applied to this grade of school is related to 
our word asylum, in its broader sense of shelter. 

Another justification for the infant school is the 



PREVIEW 33 

fact that in many homes stress of industrial con- 
ditions prevents the mother from giving proper 
care to the young children of the family. She 
gratefully accepts the relief offered by the school, 
which is in fact a sort of day nursery. It is this 
form of infant school which prevails in France, 
where it is known as the maternal school. 

The most modern and progressive form of 
infant education is the Kindergarten, which aims 
to be much more than a refuge or a nursery, 
though it has these values incidentally. The 
Kindergarten aims to make use of the natural 
instinct of the child for play and to divert this 
activity into more orderly and meaningful 
channels than it would have if left undirected. 
It aims to put before him certain ideals which he 
shall come to make his own and which shall 
become effective motives in his post-Kindergarten 
days. It aims, too, to create for the child a social 
environment which shall evoke his appreciation of 
a cultured social atmosphere. In the Kindergar- 
ten he is to learn that he is more than Ego. He 
is to realize that, however fondly his mother may 
regard him as the only important human unit, he 
is, as a matter of fact, but a single member of a 



34 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

large social group. Then his thought and his 
interests become less self-centered, and he learns 
something of the social arts and graces. 1 Though 
of German origin, the greatest strength of the 
Kindergarten to-day is in the United States. 

The Elementary school is the traditional vehi- 
cle of the "common school " education. It is the 
" people's school, found wherever the nation has 
been inspired with the ideal of popular education. 
Although it is possible, by diligent investigation, 
to trace the origin of our common schools back 
into the days of ancient Greece and Rome, it 
was not before the nineteenth century that the 
idea of universal education became a reality, first 
in certain of the states of Germany under the 
stress of the conquest by Napoleon, later in cer- 
tain of the United States of America, in France, 
and in England." 2 

The elementary school of the present day 
necessarily exists in two well-defined types, the 
rural and the urban. In rural communities, 
where population is scattered and a large area 

1 On misinterpretation of the Kindergarten spirit, see author's 
"Problems of the Elementary School," Appleton, 1910, p. 71. 

2 Lewis F. Anderson, u History of Common School Education," 
Holt, 1909, p. 275. 



PREVIEW 35 

must be traversed in order to secure a score or 
two of pupils, it follows that the school unit can 
consist of but a single class. But where popula- 
tion centers develop, it is possible — indeed, 
necessary — to gather several hundreds of pupils 
into a single building. This permits the group- 
ing of pupils into grades and the organization of 
the school into a number of classes. 

Perhaps the more significant trend in regard 
to this grade of school is its tendency to extend 
its influence to all children. There are many 
unfortunates whose physical and mental short- 
comings preclude their proper instruction in 
classes of normal pupils. In the past these have 
been ignored by the schools, and whatever special 
attention they have received has been at the 
hands of charitable institutions or private bene- 
faction. To-day there is an awakening to the 
responsibility of the State toward this group of 
children, and here and there specific and effec- 
tive effort is being made in their behalf. Such 
of them as are admitted to regular school classes 
remain at a serious cost both to themselves and 
to the normal children. Their segregation in 
special classes is demanded, therefore, not only 



36 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

by their own interest, but by the interest of the 
school as a whole. 

Indeed, some go so far as to say that " it is the normal child 
who suffers most from contact with the special child who is un- 
able to follow the work of the class. The special child takes 
more than his share of the attention of the teacher, and, as a 
matter of fact, the special child does not benefit sufficiently to 
entitle him to this extra attention. The special class must be 
a clearing house. To it will not only be sent the slightly blind 
and partially deaf, but also the incorrigibles, the mental defi- 
cients, the cripples." l 

It is necessary that sharp distinction shall be drawn be- 
tween children whose defect is physical and those whose defect 
is mental. 2 For the physically defective there is always the 
valid hope that he may be educated, despite his defect, to the 
point of becoming, for all practical purposes, a normal indi- 
vidual and a useful and influential citizen. There are so many 
instances of men and women totally blind or totally deaf or 
seriously crippled, who have risen to places of eminence as 
participants in the world's work, that there is no need to cite 
any one of them. The boy who, through partial deafness, is 
losing ground in a class of normal pupils ought in all justice to 
be withdrawn and given instruction more specially adapted to 
his needs. The boy who lacks the full use of his hands, so that 

1 Dr. E. R. Johnstone, Superintendent of the School for Feeble- 
minded Boys and Girls at Vineland, N J., quoted in Emma Sylvester, 
"Auxiliary Education, 11 Doubleday, Page, and Co., 1909, p. 204. 

2 For a discussion and classification of types see William Esta- 
brook Chancellor, " Our City Schools : Their Direction and 
Management, 11 Heath, 1908, p. 130. 



PREVIEW 37 

he cannot be trained for the ordinary employments, must be 
trained in work fitted to his condition. The blind boy must 
be taught to read and interpret through the special instruments 
provided for those thus afflicted. But neither the blind nor 
the deaf nor the crippled are to be regarded in the same light 
as those suffering from mental defect, although we recognize 
that weak mentality is usually associated with abnormal physi- 
cal characteristics of some sort. Although incurable, "the 
lesser forms of feeble- mindedness may be susceptible of 
amelioration and of modification, just in proportion as they 
have been superinduced by causes congenital or accidental." 1 

The training given to the feeble-minded has a different purpose 
from that provided for the physically deficient. " As has been 
stated by many experts, the defective may often be trained so as 
to become self-supporting, but he seldom, if ever, becomes self- 
directing." 2 It is to be remembered that the average man is 
not merely self-supporting ; he is family supporting. The pres- 
ent-day effort on behalf of the feeble-minded is not to attempt 
to cure him or, in the ordinary sense, to educate him, but to 
enable him, as a social unit, to carry, as near as may be, his own 
weight. This can be done only by making him industrially 
efficient, so that, under proper direction, he may yield an eco- 
nomic output equivalent to the expense of his maintenance. 3 

1 Martin W. Barr, " Mental Defectives : Their History, Treatment, 
and Training," P. Blakiston's Son and Co., 1904, p. 23. 

2 Sylvester, op. cit., p. 214. See also p. 264 for bibliography of 
subject. 

3 An investigation made in Germany by Doctor Stelzner as to 
200 weak-minded persons not receiving instruction in an auxiliary 
school, showed that a total of 235 convictions were recorded against 
them, for begging, larceny, housebreaking, forgery, fraud, assault, 
and vagrancy. 



38 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Dr. Barr classifies the feeble-minded, educationally, as 
(i) idiots, (2) moral imbeciles, (3) imbeciles, and (4) backward 
or mentally feeble, 1 and prescribes for the first, asylum care; 

1 His detailed classification is : — 



(0 



Idiot 



Idio-imbecile 



f Profound \ \ Unimprovable. 

[excitable J 

e r • 1 (apathetic] Improvable in 

\ excitable J self-help only. 
Unprovable t7i self-help and helpfulness. 

Trainable in very limited degree to assist 

others. 



(2) Moral Imbecile 
(mentally and 
morally defi- 
cient). 



(3) Imbecile 

(mentally 
deficient). 



Low grade — 
temperament 
bestial. 
Middle grade — 
plotter of mis- 
chief. 
High grade — 
genius for 
evil. 
Low grade 



Middle grade 



, High grade 



Trainable in industrial 

occupations. 

Trainable in industrial 
occupations. 

Trainable in manual 
and intellectual arts. 

Trainable i?i industrial 
and simplest manual 
occupations. 

Trainable in ma?iual 
arts and mental ac- 
quirements. 

Traifiable in manual 
and intellectual arts. 



(4) Backward and Mentally Feeble : mental processes normal but 
slow and requiring special training and environment to prevent 
deterioration. Defect imminent under slightest provocation, 
such as excitement, overstimulation, or illness. 

— Op. cit., p. 90. 

Also p. 338 for bibliography of Writings of Edward Seguin : 



PREVIEW 39 

for the second, custodial life and perpetual guardianship; for 
the third, long apprenticeship and colony life under protec. 
tion ; while the fourth, he says, may be trained for a place in the 
world. 

Modern educational systems are hopefully 
meeting the problem of the training of defectives 
through segregation, establishing what are known 
as auxiliary schools or classes. Elementary edu- 
cation therefore is to be studied under two 
parallel subdivisions : general and auxiliary. 

The secondary schools provide instruction ad- 
vanced beyond that of the elementary curriculum 
and extending into the realm of what is regarded 
as a " liberal education." In most countries, how- 
ever, the secondary schools provide also a pre- 
liminary training parallel with that given in the 
elementary schools. Thus the distinction be- 
tween the two forms of institution is more than 

cretinism and idiocy ; mental defectives ; surgery of idiocy ; 
epilepsy. 
Idiocy is to be distinguished from Imbecility in that the former is 
a defect of the mind, the latter a weakness of mind. Idiocy is con- 
genital or due to causes operating during the first few years of life. 
In the Elwyn (American) table, Dr. Barr finds the following per- 
centages of causes : — 

Acting before birth 64.85 

Acting at birth 2.92 

Acting after birth 32.23 



40 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

one of grade; it is a distinction of purpose — a 
consequent of social cleavages. Thus, in France 
and Germany, where caste is of long standing, 
the children of the so-called " better class " do not 
attend the people's elementary school at all, or if 
they do so, do not complete the course, but transfer 
at an early age to the secondary school. Here 
they enter immediately upon the foundation work 
of secondary education and continue in the school 
until early manhood. One notable exception to 
this form of secondary school is found in the 
United States, where secondary education, under 
the impulse of democratic ideals, is a direct con- 
tinuation of the work of the elementary school and 
is of comparatively short duration. 1 The average 
graduate of the American secondary school is 
some two years or more behind the French or 
German graduate of the corresponding institution. 
Higher education, in most countries, is the 
work exclusively of the university. With its 
history of a thousand years, the university is the 
traditional institution for the conservation of the 
learning of the ages and the encouragement of 

1 For discussion of the weakness of the American system in this 
respect, see Part I of author's " Problems of the Elementary School." 



PREVIEW 41 

that investigation which is the hope of the science 
and philosophy of the future. It is recognized 
everywhere as the capstone of the educational 
structure. President Low has defined it as " the 
highest organized exponent of the intellectual 
needs of man." 

The United States, however, has developed 
an intermediate, rather indeterminate, institution 
called the college. The college gives opportu- 
nity to the graduates of the secondary schools to 
overcome the disadvantage at which they are held 
when compared with European graduates. It fur- 
ther carries them beyond, into what corresponds 
to university work abroad. Terminology is so 
loose that many American institutions calling 
themselves universities are doing work of but 
college grade. On the other hand, there are sev- 
eral strong colleges and universities which offer 
extended courses of superior grade to college 
graduates. They grant to postgraduate students 
advanced degrees which are, in every respect, on 
a par with foreign university degrees. 

According to Professor Laurie, 1 the earliest pro- 

1 S. S. Laurie, "The Rise and Early Constitution of Universi- 
ties," Appleton, 1902. 



42 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

totype of our modern university was the institu- 
tion at Alexandria, whose library was founded B.C. 
298, and whose influence was such as to encompass 
the intellectual life of three continents. He would 
also date university instruction in Rome back to 
69 a.d. and in Constantinople to 379. In the 
modern sense, however, we credit Bologna with 
the first of the universities. In the year 1200 it 
is said to have had 10,000 students — this is less 
startling, however, if we recall the form of organ- 
ization of the institution and probable inclusion 
in this reckoning of all persons in any way con- 
nected with the corporation. The universities of 
Paris and Oxford date back to about the same 
time, and the " starting point of the great German 
universities " was at Prague, in 1348. 1 

Vocational schools are those whose aim is to 
give specific training for vocational work. The 
traditional purpose and atmosphere of the schools 
which we have grouped above into four grades are 
general and cultural rather than specific and prac- 
tical. In a sense, of course, all schooling is a prep- 

1 For an extensive bibliography on student life in the higher 
schools of America and Europe, see Appendix to Henry D, Sheldon, 
"Student Life and Customs," Appleton, 1901. 



PREVIEW 43 

aration for life work, and we note to-day a strong 
sentiment in favor of placing greater emphasis 
upon the vocational phase of the work of all grades 
of institutions. 

" Among all the purposes that education may be expected 
to serve, it is perfectly clear that individual and community effi- 
ciency is paramount, and, moreover, that this efficiency is gen- 
eral, having equal application to the industrial and to the 
nonindustrial, to the vocational and to the nonvocational." — 
E. Davenport, "Education for Efficiency," Heath, 1909, p. iii. 

" It would be safe to say, then, that a very large percentage 
of poverty is caused, directly or in the second stage removed, 
by a lack of useful training. We should not be warranted in 
attempting to state it as a definite percentage. To establish 
the fact that there is a connection between much of the existing 
poverty and the untrained, unskilled condition of the impover- 
ished persons, is all we might hope to do." — John M. Gillette, 
"Vocational Education," American Book Co., 1910, p. 143. 

" It is because it is believed that the individual training of 
the young holds in solution the essential ideas that underlie the 
various activities of society, and that this substratum of experi- 
ence in industrial processes is as necessary a condition for the 
normal development of the individual as racial industry has 
been for the maintenance and advance of society itself, that the 
question is beginning to command the attention of thoughtful 
people." — Katherine Elizabeth Dopp, "The Place of Indus- 
tries in Elementary Education," Chicago, 1909. 

Purely technical training, however, is to be 
found in institutions entirely distinct from those 



44 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

we have been considering, or in independent de- 
partments of such institutions. Vocational edu- 
cation is of all grades, from the training of pupils 
of elementary school age in simple industries to 
the advanced technical and professional research 
work of students of university rank. " One of the 
vital elements of the problem is the question of 
the relation of school training to shop practice or 
apprenticeship." " Trades which can be carried 
forward with special effectiveness in certain 
neighborhoods should be taught in the schools of 
those neighborhoods." J The directions taken by 
vocational education are manifold and not readily 
classifiable, but for our purpose this group of 
schools may be subdivided into four types : pro- 
fessional, commercial, industrial, agricultural. 2 

1 Harlow S. Person, "Industrial Education/' Houghton, Mifflin, 
1907, p. 236. 

2 Commissioner Snedden in his monograph, " The Problem of 
Vocational Training," Houghton, Mifflin, 1910, p. 8, outlines the 
classification thus : " That vocational education which is specialized 
to the preparation of lawyers, physicians, and teachers, we call pro- 
fessional ; that which is designed to train the bookkeeper, clerk, 
stenographer, or commercial traveler, including business leadership, 
we call commercial ; that which is organized with reference to the 
needs of the bricklayer, the machinist, the shoemaker, the metal 
worker, the factory hand, and the higher manufacturing pursuits, we 
call industrial education ; that which conveys skill and knowledge 



PREVIEW 45 

In School Administration, no less than else- 
where, is the distinction of sex to be recognized. 
Few nations have yet come to the point of declar- 
ing for coordinate education of men and women ; 
almost everywhere is there disproportionate pro- 
vision made for boys. Hence, in any systematic 
study of the schools of a country it becomes nec- 
essary to note the degree of educational opportu- 
nity offered to women. One of the problems in- 
cidental to the general enlargement of this degree 
of opportunity is that of coeducation. Shall male 
and female students be taught in the same classes 

looking to the tillage of the soil and the management of domestic 
animals, we call agricultural ; and that which teaches the girl dress- 
making, cooking, and management of the home, we call education 
in the household arts." 

We shall not especially concern ourselves with this last group, for, 
as Dr. Snedden says, p. 26, " In the household arts, there exist at the 
present time almost no genuine vocational schools, although there 
are widespread opportunities for some partial study, and practice of 
these arts, as phases of liberal education. 1 ' 

Cf. "Recently the public school has undertaken the responsibility 
of extending its work into the household science field, that the 
benefit of such organized instruction may reach all women as a part 
of their general education. When such liberal training is wide- 
spread, then the public may expect the rational and justifiable in 
household procedure where we now have the haphazard and tradi- 
tional." — Arthur D. Dean, " The Worker and the State," Century, 
1910, p. 87. 



46 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

or within the same school ? Different countries 
with their differing ideals and traditions give di- 
vergent answers. It would seem that neither the 
proponents nor the opponents of coeducation 
have the better of the theoretical discussion of 
the subject. Valid arguments are advanced both 
pro and con, but except for a mere summary of 
these arguments at this point, we shall content 
ourselves with noting the actual practice as we 
take up the more detailed study of each country. 

It is pretty generally admitted that the question 
of coeducation is not the same for the various 
grades, although some extremists would not toler- 
rate it in any grade. 1 Other educators would 
have coeducation in the elementary schools but 
no farther; others would carry it through the 
secondary institutions ; still others would extend 
it throughout the entire educational course. 
There is, too, a large and probably growing num- 
ber who would segregate the sexes during second- 
ary education, but would coeducate before and 
after that stage. 

To provide separate elementary schools for 

1 See Superintendent Haaren in Report of the City Superintendent 
of Schools, New York, 1909, p. 259. 



PREVIEW 47 

each sex would increase educational expenditure 
by a very large percentage, and no nation, what- 
ever its desire, has yet had the wealth with which 
to incur this additional expense. In rural dis- 
tricts, pupils must travel quite far enough as it 
is to reach the schoolhouse with its single coedu- 
cational class. To organize such a school into 
separate classes for boys and for girls would be to 
place a prohibitive burden upon the taxpayer; to 
require either all the boys or all the girls to travel 
on to the next school in order to secure segrega- 
tion would be either a cruel or impossible exaction. 
Hence coeducation in rural schools of elementary 
grade is common practice the world over. In the 
cities, segregation is a more simple matter, and prac- 
tice follows local opinion. Secondary and higher 
education applies to but a small percentage of 
students and is given, almost universally, in schools 
comprising several classes. Thus, whether such 
schools shall be organized as " mixed " or not is less 
dependent upon financial consideration. 

It may be well to sketch the chief arguments advanced for 
and against coeducation in schools of secondary grade. 1 

1 See Louisa Parsons Hopkins, " Coeducation of the Sexes in 
Boston Public Schools," Educational Review, Vol. I, p. 46; Horace 
A. Hollister, "High School Administration, 1 ' D. C. Heath and Co., 



48 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

For coeducation : — 

( i ) Free intermingling of boys and girls is the natural con- 
dition, the condition prevailing in the home and in the com- 
munity. 

(2) Segregation encourages artificial and clandestine rela- 
tions. 

(3) There is a reciprocal influence both intellectual and 
moral, of boys upon girls and of girls upon boys, which should 
not be lost to either. 

(4) The morbid tendencies induced by adolescence are 
diverted and corrected by coeducation. 

(5) There is opportunity for the teaching of social amen- 
ities and of respect of each sex for the ability of the other. 

(6) Discipline is easier through the stimulus of emulation 
and the refining influence of girls and the steadying influence 
of boys. 

Against coeducation : — 

(1) The natural innate differences in temperament due to 
sex demand separate training for boys and girls. 

(2) The natural differences arising at adolescence should 
be regarded as instructive, and should be respected by not 
forcing boys and girls into companionship in the schoolroom. 

(3) "Too much association at the period, with a strong 
spirit of camaraderie, takes away much of the real charm and 
freshness which ought to characterize the attitude of youth 
toward the opposite sex." x 

1909, p. 165; Mabel Hawtrey, "The Coeducation of the Sexes," 
London, 1896, showing that boys and girls ought not to be given 
identical education; John Franklin Brown, "The American High 
School," Macmillan, 1909, p. 386. Also, United States Commissioner's 
Report, 1901, Vol. II, p. 1283, for bibliography on the subject. 
1 Hollister, op. cit., p. 165. 



PREVIEW 49 

(4) The moral dangers arising from too easy a relation- 
ship between the sexes. 

(5) The physical danger for girls, with the further possi- 
bility of the work being too easy for the boys if it is modified 
to meet the needs of the girls. 

(6) The administrative difficulties, especially in small 
schools, such as 

(a) The need of modifying instruction in its method and 
atmosphere to reach both boys and girls. 

(l>) Equipment and program as to physical and manual 
training. 

(c) Scarcity of teachers peculiarly adapted to mixed classes. 

It is evident that nearly all the arguments 
against coeducation fail to apply to early ele- 
mentary schooling. It is only with the adolescent 
education that the discussion assumes serious 
importance. With the development of students 
into manhood and womanhood, and the pass- 
ing of the acute stage of adolescence, many 
of the arguments again become irrelevant, and 
the case of coeducation in the college or uni- 
versity rests on a somewhat different founda- 
tion. 

On one side, we may note the recent abandon- 
ment of coeducation on the part of Tufts Col- 
lege through the establishment of a separate 
institution for women. 



50 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The committee charged with investigating the matter set 
forth the facts and their conclusions in a report, 1 a brief excerpt 
from which reads as follows : — 

" We have held personal conversation upon the matter with 
a large number of the members of the Faculty of Liberal Arts. 
Each and every one so consulted gave it as his opinion, formed 
carefully and deliberately after several years' teaching and 
observation, that the interests of both men and women would be 
best served by a segregation of the sexes. Some of the profes- 
sors admitted this to be a reversal of their earlier opinions and 
judgment. We could not learn that there is, at present, any 
professor who now feels that coeducation at Tufts has proven 
so satisfactory in its results that it should be continued." 

Some of the reasons given for these conclusions are, briefly : 

" In a few studies, the delicacy of treating fully a subject where 
both men and women were present in the same class. This 
was not, however, by any one considered a sufficient cause in 
itself to justify a change. 

" The invariably different viewpoint (due to the difference in 
sex) from which men and women approached nearly all of 
the subjects, and the difficulty, in the hour of the recitation, 
of properly presenting the subject to the comprehension of both 
sexes. 

" A natural reluctance on the part of both sexes to enter, dur- 
ing a recitation, into any argument with the other sex over any 
subject under consideration. 

" The tendency of women to select courses in which from the 
nature of the subject and their natural aptitude and ability they 
will secure high marks, coupled with the general desire of 

1 Circular of Information relating to the establishment of Jackson 
College for Women, Tufts College Bulletin, May, 1910. 



PREVIEW 5 1 

women for high marks. This secures to the women students a 
higher average standing than the men, and consequently a 
rather disproportionate part of the awards, prizes, and prestige, 
which, under coeducation, are always awarded in common for 
both men and women. If the women took more of the courses 
ordinarily taken by the men, it is probable that the results 
would be somewhat different ; but as it is, it appears, rightly 
or wrongly, that the incentive on the part of the men to work 
for honors, and awards is very much weakened by the approxi- 
mate certainty of non-success, due to the peculiar competition 
above referred to. 

" If this were the only ground, it is probable that the condition 
could be met by a plan which would secure a setting apart of 
honors, prizes, and awards for men and women on the basis of 
the scholarship in each sex, although this would be contrary to 
one of the fundamental principles of coeducation. 

" It was admitted that the presence of women served slightly 
as a stimulus to the men, and the sentiment was quite generally 
expressed that their presence on the Hill had served to help 
the tone of the community — had exercised a sort of refining 
influence on the men. 

" Outside of the causes already mentioned and the clear-cut 
opinion, as already stated, of each and every one of the Faculty 
consulted, namely, that in his particular subject he was firmly 
convinced that better results for both men and women could be 
secured if he were to teach them separately, the professors 
advised us that in their dealings with the students they found : — 

" A feeling or sentiment pervading the whole student body, 
both men and women (there being but very few individual ex- 
ceptions), that each sex would be better off in their work were 
the other absent." 



52 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

On the other side we have the testimony of 
many leaders of educational thought, among 
them, to cite but one, the President of Leland 
Stanford Junior University, who sums up the 
case in these words : " Other things being equal, 
the young men are more earnest, better in man- 
ners and morals, and in all ways more civilized 
than under monastic conditions. The women do 
more work in a more natural way, with better 
perspective and saner incentives, than when iso- 
lated from the influence and society of men." 1 

1 David Starr Jordan, " The Care and Culture of Men," San 
Francisco, 1896, p. 130. 



CHAPTER V 

THE UNITED STATES 

" Education in the United States is not so much disorgan- 
ized as it is unorganized. It is not so much unorganized as it 
is the subject of cross and various organizations. It is in cer- 
tain relations overorganized. The units of organization are 
many, diverse, and often cover identical conditions." — 
Thwing, " College Administration," p. i. 

The schools of the United States present two 
characteristics which seem to stand out beyond 
all others. The first of these is the abiding, 
almost pathetic, faith of the American people in 
the virtue and power of formal education, a faith 
nation-wide and deep-grounded. From the days 
of the worthy " Nine Men " of New Amsterdam, 
who, in 1649, protested that "there should be a 
public school provided with at least two good 
masters, so that, first of all, in so wild a country, 
where there are many loose people, the youth be 
well taught and brought up, not only in reading 
and writing, but also in the knowledge and fear 
of the Lord," 1 down to the present time, we may 

1 Edwin Grant Dexter, " A History of Education in the United 
States," Macmillan, 1904, p. 16. 

53 



54 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

trace the notion that to establish a school is to 
guarantee sobriety and prosperity. 1 

The second characteristic, no less striking than 
this faith in education, is the fierce determination 
of the American people that their schools shall 
be clothed only in the conventional raiment of 
democracy. As a consequence, the schools are 
jealously guarded against the intrusion of what- 
ever might seem to recognize caste. "In no other 
country is there so definite a purpose to make 
the public schools good enough for both rich and 
poor." 2 As Dr. Draper states it: "The nation 
wants more than industrial power. . . . There 
are no ' classes ' in education. It is the national 
belief that the true greatness of the nation and 
the welfare of mankind depend not only upon 
giving every one his chance, but also upon aiding 
and inspiring every one to seize his chance." 3 

1 See Ellwood P. Cubberley, "Changing Conceptions of Educa- 
tion," Houghton, Mifflin, 1909, p. 67. In this monograph the author 
outlines the significant changes which have taken place in our 
national life, and sketches the present trend in the consequent 
changes in the conception of the school. 

2 Dutton and Snedden, " The Administration of Public Educa- 
tion in the United States," Macmillan, 1908, p. 17. 

3 Andrew S. Draper, " American Education," Houghton, Mifflin, 
1909, p. 14. 



THE UNITED STATES 55 

The concrete result of this belief is to be seen in the 
organic structure of the American school system. 
The words American system are used advis- 
edly, and in the face of the condition that as 
" each city, each county, and in some States each 
country district has practically the privilege of 
conducting its schools in accordance with any 
whim upon which it may decide, it is but natural 
that the schools of different cities should vary 
considerably in their standing." 1 Notwithstand- 
ing this variation, the schools throughout the 
nation have so much in common as to consti- 
tute them into something distinctively American. 
Moreover, the trend is all toward a standardiza- 
tion of structure. So, as we proceed to consider 
the different groups of schools, we must do so 
with a consciousness of the proper sense in 
which the term American School System may be 
employed. 

Infant Education 

America has not taken kindly to the idea of 
having its public schools exercise the function 
of the day nursery. Hence, in the history of 

1 J. M. Rice, "The Public School System of the United States," 
Century, 1893, p. 2. 



56 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

American Education, we have to await the ap- 
pearance of the Kindergarten, with its broader 
program, before we see any serious attempt to 
serve children of infant grade. 

It is true that in 1827 an Infant School Society was formed 
in New York City in the interest of children from three to 
six years of age, but it was soon incorporated into the New 
York Public School Society, and its schools merged into the 
primary departments of the public school system. Similar 
attempts in other cities met with like meager results. 

It was in 1855 that Mrs. Carl Schurz, who had studied 
under Froebel, established at Watertovvn, Wis., the first 
American kindergarten. Of the early kindergartens in the 
United States, all of which were under private administration, 
the great majority were organized by Germans and conducted 
in the German language. The notable exception was the 
school opened in Boston in i860 by Miss Elizabeth Palmer 
Peabody, sister-in-law of Horace Mann, and "usually con- 
sidered the apostle of the kindergarten movement in the 
United States." 

The first public kindergarten was opened by the School 
Board of St. Louis, Mo., in 1873, under the superintendency 
of Dr. Harris. It was taught gratuitously by Miss Susan E. 
Blow, 1 a pupil of Mrs. Kraus-Boelte, with such success as to 

1 Miss Blow soon became an influential leader in the kindergar- 
ten movement and has written authoritatively on the technique of 
the subject. Chief among her books are : " Symbolic Education," 
" A Commentary on FroebePs Mother-Play," " The Mottoes and 
Commentaries of Friedrich FroebePs Mother-Play," " The Songs and 
Music of FroebePs Mother-Play," "Letters to a Mother." 



THE UNITED STATES 



57 



establish it firmly in the St. Louis system and to encourage 
similar experiments in other cities. 1 

In Boston, Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw supported the entire free 
kindergarten system of the city, from 1876 to 1889, in which 
year the thirty-six classes to which it had grown were taken 
over by the city. Among the other cities which, in the early 
years, adopted the kindergarten as a part of their public school 
system, the larger were : — 



Milwaukee, Wis. 
Des Moines, la. 
Portland, Me. . 
New Orleans, La. 
Hartford, Conn. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rochester, N.Y. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 



1881 
1883 
1883 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 



Lexington, Ky. . 
Utica, N.Y. . . 
St. Paul, Minn. . 
Chicago, 111. . . 
Worcester, Mass. 
New York, N.Y. 
Omaha, Neb. 



1891 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 



To-day there are hundreds of cities and villages maintaining 
public kindergartens, with a total enrollment approximating 

200,000. 2 

1 For bibliography on the kindergarten in representative cities 
see Appendix, Nina C. Vandewalker, "The Kindergarten in Ameri- 
can Education, 11 Macmillan, 1908. 

2 This acceptance of the kindergarten as an integral part of the 
American school system has not been effected without a contest. 
The struggle is interestingly depicted by Miss Vandewalker, who 
sketches it in accordance with the following outline : — 

"1. German Kindergarten, 1855-1870. 



Period of Introduction 

1 2. Accepted as American Institution, 

1 880-1 890. 

Unquestioned acceptance, 1 880-1 890. 

12. Critical period and reconstruction, 
1890. 



1855-1880 

Period of Extension j 
1880- 



58 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Elementary Education 

Throughout the length and breadth of the 
United States, punctuating the landscape with 
persistent frequency, stands the "district" school- 
house, built by the people, apostrophized by the 
poet, lauded by the political orator, and held in 
fond remembrance by thousands of men and 
women who credit it with having exercised an 
influence upon them far out of proportion to its 
size and superficial appearance. 1 

Of the total population of the nation, one per- 
son in every five is enrolled in its public schools ; 
of this enrollment, one third is in the schools of 
the cities and larger villages. The prevailing 
course in the urban schools is eight years, al- 
though some 20 per cent of the cities have 

1 For an outline of the growth of the people's schools in the 
various States, see Dexter, op. cit., Chaps. 1-5. 

Of the enrollment of pupils in private schools, the greater part is 
in Catholic schools. "The greatest religious fact in the United 
States to-day," says Bishop Spaulding, " is the Catholic school sys- 
tem, maintained without any aid except from the people who love 
it. A school system which comprises 1,000,000 pupils, over 20,000 
professional teachers, more than $100,000,000 worth of property, 
with an annual expenditure in the neighborhood of $15,000,000. 
. . ." — J. A. Burns, "The Catholic School System in the 
United States," Benziger Bros., 1908, p. 13. 



THE UNITED STATES 59 

adopted a nine-year course, thus permitting the 
pupils to take the curriculum more leisurely or 
to add a " continuation " year to their normal ele- 
mentary instruction. Among these cities are 
Sacramento, Cal., Hartford, Conn., Portland, 
Me., St. Joseph, Mo., Utica, N.Y., and Buffalo, 
N.Y. On the contrary, in some places the course 
is limited to seven years, as in Decatur, 
111., Kansas City, Mo., Mobile, Ala., Asheville, 
N.C., and many other cities in the Southern 
States. 

The rural school, in many cases, aims high at 
a formal and extended curriculum, classifies its 
pupils into " grades," and otherwise seeks a stand- 
ard difficult of attainment under limited material 
conditions. When it comes to accomplishment, 
the rural school gives instruction in the common 
branches usually more in accord with the de- 
mands of its local supporters than in compliance 
with a theoretically standardized curriculum, and, 
when it is not too crowded, in an atmosphere of 
attention to the individual which but infrequently 
pervades the city classroom. 

The need of reform in the organization of the 
rural school is rapidly becoming recognized in 



60 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

many parts of the country. The chief remedy 
proposed, to offset the shortcomings resulting 
from sparseness of population, is in the direction 
of consolidation of schools. In accordance with 
this plan the weak schools within a given radius 
are discontinued and in their stead there is 
established one strong, graded school, centrally 
located. 

Dr. Foght gives us a picture of this educational phoenix in 
the following language : " A modern school will rise, near the 
center of the township, which will afford every opportunity 
for practical preparation for happy life on the farm. The 
school will be hygienic, and have modern equipment and 
better teachers. The course of study will be graded, recita- 
tion periods longer, interest well sustained, years in school 
longer. Pupils living at a distance will be conveyed to school 
in suitable vehicles, avoiding exposure to inclement weather. 
Finally consolidated schools can offer ample opportunities for 
thorough work in nature study, school gardening, and elemen- 
tary agriculture, as well as manual training and domestic econ- 
omy." 1 

Massachusetts seems to have been the pioneer 
in this movement, authorizing consolidation in 
1865, and a few years later providing for the 
conveyance of children at public expense. The 

1 Harold Waldstein Foght, " The American Rural School," Mac- 
millan, 1910, p. 302. 



THE UNITED STATES 6 1 

State now spends in the neighborhood of a quar- 
ter of a million dollars annually for free con- 
veyance. Connecticut and Vermont have also 
experimented along this line, and the movement 
is making considerable headway in the States of 
the Middle West. 

A steady advance in the progress of elementary 
education is shown by the statistics of enrollment. 
For instance, in 1870 the schools were open on 
an average of 132 days in the year, whereas in 
1909 this figure had risen to 155. 1 Each pupil 
enrolled attends on average of 11 2.6 days, a per- 
centage of attendance exceeding 72. 

Auxiliary Education 

It has long been conceded in America that so- 
ciety should make provision for its unfortunate 
blind and deaf. All but five of the States have 
established institutions wherein instruction is 
given to the blind, in some cases extending from 

1 With considerable variation in different sections of the coun- 
try :- 

North Atlantic States I79-Q 

South Atlantic States 138.6 

South Central States 123.3 

North Central States 164.7 

Western States 161. 2 



62 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the kindergarten to the high school. For the 
deaf, 1 in addition to several private schools, all 

1 The following " Order of the Day " of the Missouri School for 
the Deaf is typical : — 

Rise 6.00 a.m. 

Breakfast 6.30 

Chapel 7.45 

School and shops 8.00 

Recess 10.30 to 10.45 

Close of school and shops 12.50 p.m. 

Dinner 1.00 

School and shops 2.00 

Close of school and shops 4.30 

Supper 6.00 

Study 7.15 

Retire 7.30, 8.00, 8.30, and 9.30 

SATURDAYS 

Rise 6.00 a.m. 

Breakfast 6.30 

Shops 8.00 

Close of shops 12.00 

Dinner 12.30 p.m. 

Supper 6.00 

Retire 7-3°> 8.00, 8.30, and 9.30 

SUNDAYS 

Rise 6.00 a.m. 

Breakfast 6.30 

Chapel 9.00 

Study (Sunday lesson) 10.30 to 11.30 

Dinner 12.30 p.m. 

Sunday School 3.00 

Supper 5.30 



THE UNITED STATES 63 

but six States support institutions, there being 
in 1 9 10 fifty-seven of these, of which New York 
had eight and Pennsylvania four. There is also 
a rapidly increasing number of recently established 
public day schools ; Chicago, New York, Boston, 
and Milwaukee leading as to size. 

In the large cities the class for the deaf in a public day 
school has distinct advantages over the boarding institution. 
It accustoms the child to the actual conditions which he is to 
meet in after life ; it gives him the benefit of contact and com- 
petition with normal children (for, as soon as he is able, he takes 
much of his work in regular classes) ; and it inculcates in the 
normal children a wholesome respect for the abilities of the 
afflicted. 

In the early part of the nineteenth century the first ex- 
periment in the training of imbecile children — fairly successful 
but short in duration — was made in the American Asylum 
for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, Conn. 1 The first public 

General reading 7.00 to 8.00 p.m. 

Retire 7.30, 8.00, 8.30, and 9.30 

EVENING STUDY 

Begin 7.15 p.m. 

First Grade retire 7.45 

Second and Third grades retire 8.00 

Fourth, Fifth, and B grades retire 8.30 

Club rooms, study 7.15 to 9.00 

Retire 9.30 

1 For an outline of the origin and development of the care and 

training of the feeble-minded in the United States, we are indebted 

to Sylvester, op. at., p. 14 et seq. 



64 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

institution was the Massachusetts School for the Feeble-Minded 
at Waltham, established in October, 1848. The New York 
State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, now located at 
Syracuse, was established by act of legislature in 1851. This 
was shortly followed by similar institutions in Pennsylvania at 
Elwyn, and in Ohio near Columbus ; and to-day a majority of 
the States have taken up the work. One of the most success- 
ful of the resulting institutions is the New Jersey State Home 
for the Care and Training of Feeble-Minded Women, and the 
related Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls and Boys, 
both situated at Vineland and established in 1888. 

The first class for mental defectives was formed 
in Providence in 1894. This example was fol- 
lowed by Springfield, Mass., in 1894, Boston and 
Philadelphia in 1899, and New York in 1903. 

The interests of auxiliary education are furthered by the 
National Association for the Study and Education of Excep- 
tional Children, an eleemosynary association incorporated 
under the laws of the State of New Jersey. 

In this connection reference should also be 
made to over 100 reform schools with more than 
50,000 inmates, nearly all of whom have been 
committed in accordance with State laws and yet 
have not been guilty of criminal acts. Their 
commitment rescues them from criminal environ- 
ment and saves them to honorable citizenship. 1 

1 For a discussion of the administration of correctional education 
and the education of defectives, see Dutton-Snedden, oj). at., Chaps. 



THE UNITED STATES 65 

Secondary Education 

Secondary education under the public school 
system is provided by what is universally known 
as the " High School," whose roots lie in the 
old-time English Grammar School. 1 

In its growth, however, the institution went through an 
intermediate stage. The grammar schools, which flourished 
during colonial times, were gradually replaced by the acad- 
emies, the first of which was established at Philadelphia in 
1 75 1. The academies expressed the anticlassical protest, but 
they were not sufficiently democratic and in turn gave way to 
the high schools. The first of these was founded in 1821 
at Boston under the name " English Classical School," soon 
changed to " English High School." 

Those of the leading American cities which opened public 
secondary schools prior to 1840, with dates, are: Boston, 
Mass., 1634; Salem, Mass., 1636; Portland, Me., 1821 ; 
Worcester, Mass., 1824; New Bedford, Mass., 1827; Fitch- 
burg, Mass., 1830; Lowell, Mass., 1831 ; Harrisburg, Pa., 

24-25. A Bibliography of Mental Deficiency, by Henry H. Goddard, 
is published by the Training School, Vineland, NJ. 

1 " The Public Latin School of Boston enjoys the distinction of 
being the oldest existing school within the bounds of the United 
States. It was founded in the spring of 1635, thus antedating 
Harvard College, and has been in continuous existence ever since, 
with the interruption of a few months during the siege of Boston, 
1 775-1 776." — Note introducing Phillips Brooks, "The Oldest 
School in America," Houghton, Mifflin, 1885. 



66 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



1837; Philadelphia, Pa., 1838; Cambridge, Mass., 1838; 
Taunton, Mass., 1841. 1 

To-day one person in about every eighty of 
the population of the United States is enrolled 
as a student in secondary educational institu- 
tions, and of this enrollment more than 80 per 
cent is in the public high schools. 

That both the total per cent and the proportion of this per 
cent sustained by the public schools is steadily on the increase, 
is shown by the following, more exact, tabulation : — 

Per Cent of Population in Secondary Education 



1 889-1 890 
1 899-1 900 
1909-1910 



Yeai 



Public 



O.36 
O.70 
I.02 



Private 



O.23 
O.25 
0.2I 



Both 



O.59 
O.95 
I.23 



Per Cent 
Public 



6l 

74 
83 



1 For the two succeeding decades the list is : — 

Springfield, Mass. . . . 1841 Lynn, Mass. 

Binghamton, N.Y. . . 1842 Lawrence, Mass. 

New Orleans, La. . . . 1843 Lancaster, Pa. . 

Providence, R.I. . . . 1843 Dayton, O. . . 

Detroit, Mich 1844 Gloucester, Mass. 

Chelsea, Mass 1845 Waterbury, Conn. 

Cleveland, 1846 New Britain, Conn 

Cincinnati, 1847 Reading, Pa. 

Hartford, Conn. . . . 1847 Wilmington, Del. 

New York, N.Y. . . . 1849 Somerville, Mass. 

Toledo, 1849 Holyoke, Mass. 



1849 
1849 
1849 
1850 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1852 
1852 
1852 
1852 



THE UNITED STATES 67 

A fact significant of the esteem in which 
public high schools are held is that the grounds 
and buildings devoted to this use have a value 
not far from a quarter of a billion dollars. 1 Nor- 
mally, the high school course is of four years ; 
very few cities satisfy themselves with less, 

St. Louis, Mo 1853 Chicago, 111 1856 

Salt Lake City, U. . . . 1853 Louisville, Ky 1856 

Racine, Wis 1853 Springfield, 1856 

Easton, Pa 1853 Oshkosh, Wis 1856 

Buffalo, N.Y 1854 Rockford, 111 1857 

Pittsburg, Pa 1854 Maiden, Mass 1857 

Sacramento, Cal. . . . 1854 Springfield, 111 1857 

Newark, NJ 1854 Woonsocket, R.I. . . . 1857 

Paterson, N.J 1854 Scranton, Pa 1858 

Troy, N.Y 1854 Peoria, 111 1858 

Utica, N.Y 1854 Norfolk, Va 1858 

Canton, 1854 Rochester, N.Y. . . . 1859 

Syracuse, N.Y 1855 New Haven, Conn. . . 1859 

Nashville, Tenn. . . . 1855 Grand Rapids, Mich. . . 1859 

Pawtucket, R.I. . . . 1855 Newton, Mass 1859 

Schenectady, N.Y. . . 1855 Davenport, la 1859 

For an extension of this list, as well as for general historical sketch 
of secondary education in America, see Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 
"The Making of our Middle Schools," Longmans, Green, 1903. 

1 What we might term the ideal high school is described by the 
High School Committee of the University of Colorado in its state- 
ment of what that institution requires of a preparatory school in 
order that its graduates may enter the university without examina- 
tion. 

1. There should be in any community, supporting a high school, 
something of enthusiasm for the school, some pride in it, and a well- 
marked willingness, coupled with the ability to spend money and to 



68 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and several add a fifth year, as Los Angeles, 
CaL, Kansas City, Mo., Boston, Mass., Detroit, 

spend it intelligently. The attitude toward the teacher should be 
one of consideration and cooperation. 

2. The location and construction of the buildings ; the lighting, 
heating, and ventilation ; the nature and care of the lavatories, the 
corridors, closets, water supplies, school furniture, apparatus, must 
be such as to insure hygienic conditions for both pupils and teachers. 

3. The library, the laboratory, and all other equipment must be 
adequate to the needs of instruction. They should be much more 
than barely adequate. 

4. The teaching staff should consist of at least three teachers of 
academic preparation equivalent to that usually represented by the 
B. A. degree. They should have had some professional training 
(the best evidence of which is professional experience and success), 
and should have enthusiasm for their work. 

5. It is. strongly advised that no teacher be required to teach 
more than five periods per day. No school will be considered 
which requires more than six periods of any teacher. 

6. No school will be considered whose records show an abnormal 
number of pupils per teacher. 

7. It is expected that there will be an earnest spirit of coopera- 
tion between teachers and teachers, and between teachers and pupils, 
and that the general, intellectual, moral, and school tone} will be 
high. 

8. A school asking to be accredited should have been completely 
organized on the above basis long enough to have graduated classes 
for two years, and should have a creditable class for graduation in 
the year in which it makes its application. A school some of whose 
graduates have gone on to higher institutions is more acceptable 
than one of which this is not true. 

9. The high school should have a sound and well-balanced 
course of study, and graduation from the school should be based 
upon not less than fifteen units. 



THE UNITED STATES 69 

Mich., Butte, Mont., and Syracuse, N.Y. This 
fifth year is in the nature of a post-graduate 
term and naturally enrolls but a small number 
of pupils. 

Higher Education 

Turning back the pages of history, we see that 
the American people have given an even larger 
degree of attention and support to higher educa- 
tion than to the elementary and secondary schools. 

The colonists, especially of New England, brought with 
them an ideal of culture, which not all the cruel privations of 
pioneer life could crush. As President Thwing says, referring 
to the founding of Harvard in 1636, "A devotion to the 
highest ideals, so great and so triumphant, under conditions 
so forbidding, the world has not known." x Thus, as we are 
reminded by Dr. Flexner : " The American college is not like the 
common school, indigenous to American soil. It did not 
spring up to meet a native need. It was imported to meet 
a need that the colonists brought with them. Hence, a con- 
servative, not an adaptive institution, it bound the emigrant 
to his past. . . ." 2 This applies to the colleges of the first 
of the three periods into which we are accustomed to dividing 
the history of higher education in America. The colonial 
period was given over to this transplanted English institution, 
ecclesiastical in its origin, spirit, and control. 

1 Charles F. Thwing, " A History of Higher Education in Amer- 
ica," Appleton, 1906, p. 9. 

2 Abraham Flexner, " The American College : A Criticism," 
Century, 1908. 



7° 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



In the middle period, beginning just before the Revolution, 
a new spirit prompted the organization of colleges along more 
independent lines, beginning with King's (now Columbia) in 
1754, and followed some time later by a new type, the State uni- 
versities, — Tennessee, 1794; North Carolina, 1795; Georgia, 
1801 ; Indiana, 1820; Virginia, 1825; etc. Many small de- 
nominational colleges were also founded during this period. 1 

The third (modern) period began at the last third of the 
nineteenth century. Speaking of its origin, President Thwing 
says : " A new day was about to dawn in the academic world. 
Its significance was largely unknown to those who lived in its 
morning. But seen from a distance of a generation, its coming 
was full of meaning. Three causes at least contributed to the 
intellectual sunrise." 2 These causes were : the Civil War, com- 



1 The complete list of the colleges and universities opened prior 
to 1800 and now in existence is : — 
Harvard University . . 1638 
College of William 



and 
Mary 

Yale University . . 

University of Pennsylva 
nia 

Princeton University . 

Washington and Lee Uni 
versity 

Columbia University . 

Brown University . . 

Rutgers College . . 

Dartmouth College 

Hampden-Sidney College 

Washington College . . 

2 Op. at., p. 431- 



Dickinson College 

University of Nashville 
1693 University of Pittsburg 
1 70 1 Georgetown University 

St. John's College (An 
1740 napolis) .... 

1746 College of Charleston 

Williams College . . 
1749 Washington and Tuscu 
1754 lum College . . . 

1764 University of Tennessee 
1766 University of North Caro 

1769 lina 

1776 Union University . . 
1783 



1783 
1785 
1786 
1789 



1789 
1790 
1793 

1794 
1794 

1795 
1795 



THE UNITED STATES 7 1 

mercial prosperity, and the scientific movement. Under this 
stimulus came such institutions as Cornell, 1868, Johns Hop- 
kins, 1876, Clark, 1889, Leland Stanford, Jr., 1891, University 
of Chicago, 1892, and many technical schools of high rank. 
The period is also marked by the striking development of the 
post-graduate system. 

The most significant feature of the American 
institution for higher education is its lack of 
standardization. The terms college and univer- 
sity have a distinguishing content theoretically, 
which is illustrated but meagerly in practice. 
Dr. Eliot clearly states the distinction as follows : 
" When the American university is properly or- 
ganized, it will become clear to the public that a 
college is a place of training for the first degree 
in arts or science obtainable at about twenty- 
one years of age, and that a university is a place 
for older students who already possess the pre- 
liminary degree in arts or science, and are study- 
ing for higher degrees in large variety." 1 

Comparatively few of our institutions, however, 
measure up to this scheme of organization. We 
have the spectacle of ill-equipped institutions call- 
ing themselves universities when their resources 

1 Charles Eliot, " University Administration," Houghton, Mifflin, 
1908, p. 42. 



72 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

are taxed to the utmost in giving a proper colle- 
giate training to their students. On the other 
hand a few "colleges" are effectively active in 
the sphere of university work. Leading educators 
realize the waste that is involved in this chaotic 
condition, though few might care to defend the 
thesis stated by Professor Ladd in the conclud- 
ing paragraph of the forceful quotation which 
follows. 

" . . . There can be no doubt that the great 
majority of the institutions now called ' univer- 
sities ' should renounce both the name and the 
pretence of the thing. Only those few institu- 
tions that have already acquired large resources of 
famous men and established courses and equip- 
ment for the highest instruction, and that can 
hope to draw from their own and from other 
colleges a sufficient constituency of pupils already 
trained in a thorough secondary education, should 
strive to develop themselves into universities. 
Large means for scientific research — libraries, 
museums, observatories, etc. — are indispensable 
for this development. A complement of profes- 
sional schools, with their faculties, is also, if not in- 
dispensable, at least highly important. I venture 



THE UNITED STATES 73 

to assert that not more than a half-dozen (?) univer- 
sities should be developed in the entire country 
during the next generation, and that no new 
institutions to bear that name should, on any 
grounds whatever, be founded." 1 

It is evident that there is to-day neither a stand- 
ard American college nor a standard American 
university, although our best ideals of the former 
are exemplified by several institutions. The col- 
lege typical in accordance with this ideal admits 
students who have had four years of secondary train- 
ing and offers them an option of two or three main 
lines of work extending over four years and leading 
to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of 
Science, or Bachelor of Letters, according to the 
character of the. course pursued. University work, 
in lines other than professional, is largely a matter 
of post-graduate study at a college or university 
which has developed courses of this grade, but con- 
tinues to maintain its collegiate department. De- 
grees of Master of Arts and Master of Science, after 
one or two years' work, and those of Doctor of 
Philosophy and Doctor of Science, after two or 

1 George Trumbull Ladd, "Essays on the Higher Education," 
Scribner's, 1899, P* 4%* 



74 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

three years' work, are the principal diplomas 
awarded. 

There are in the United States over 600 insti- 
tutions of higher education, public and private, 
with an enrollment rapidly approaching 200,000/ 

1 On the basis of total enrollment in 1910 (excluding students in 
summer schools), the leading institutions are : — 

1. University of Chicago, 111 6681* 

2. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. . . 5050* 

3. Northwestern University, Evanston, 111 4830* 

4. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111 4783 * 

5. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. . . . 4755 

f 6. College of the City of New York, New York, N. Y. 4430 * 

7. Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y 4227 

8. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. . . 4126 

9. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass 4046 

10. University of California, Berkeley, Cal 3858 

11. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. . . . 3645 

12. New York University, New York, N.Y 3627 

13. Columbia University, New York, N.Y 3534 

f 14. Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Ind. . . . 3301 * 

15. Yale University, New Haven, Conn 3297 

16. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb 3062 

17. Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y 3040 

* The above figures include students in preparatory classes as follows: — 

Chicago 674 C. C. N.Y 2971 

Minnesota 1382 Northwestern 1054 

Illinois 334 Valparaiso 656 

t Not properly in this list when number in preparatory classes is deducted. 

For comparison of fourteen leading American universities, with 
conclusions, see Edwin E. Slosson, « Great American Universities," 
Macmillan, 1910. 



THE UNITED STATES 75 

The classical course, in spite of the present trend 
away from these studies, still enlists more stu- 
dents than does general science. 

There is much current criticism of the American 
college, aside from this of its indefiniteness, much 
of which is sane and constructive, but some of which 
is no better than a phase of the general attack made 
upon culture by those who cannot comprehend it. 

Of this latter sort, the following — here noted because al- 
ready given a wide circulation — is a type. " It is conserva- 
tive to estimate that the expense of higher education to this 
nation must be at least #100,000,000 a year. And this enor- 
mous sum is literally thrown away, much to the injury of the 
country and its people." This is the thesis formulated and 
defended by Mr. R. T. Crane in a book which he is pleased 
to call an " investigation." In a metallic atmosphere of dol- 
lars and cents he finds it easy thus to dispose of the whole 
problem of education in some three hundred pages. 

More helpful is the criticism of Mr. Birdseye, whose thought 
is : " The great problem of our colleges has to do, not with the 
institution, but with the life of the individual student. . . . 
Yet, notwithstanding the immense increase of institutional 
wealth, the average student is not getting what he ought out of 
his college career, nor as much of real value for his later life as 
did his predecessor of fifty or a hundred years ago." l The avowed 
purpose of his books is " to lift college organization to the plane 
of the best with which we are familiar in the business world." 

1 Clarence F. Birdseye, " Individual Training in our Colleges," 
Macmillan, 1908, p. xxix. 



76 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

A tangible evidence of the spirit of construc- 
tive criticism is seen in the Higher Education 
Association, incorporated at Albany, in 1909, 
" to improve higher education throughout the 
United States and in particular the internal and 
external conditions of the American college." 

Vocational Edtication 

In the larger cities evening schools have been 
established and are attended by some 400,000 
pupils. Most of these schools primarily serve 
other purposes, but they are vocational in the 
sense that their students receive a supplementary 
education of elementary grade that contrib- 
utes in some measure toward their vocational 
efficiency. Moreover, some of the schools make a 
point of giving elementary training in distinctively 
vocational subjects, notably commercial branches. 

That the State shall utilize the school organi- 
zation as a means of extending opportunity to 
pupils to qualify for industrial employment is 
so new a proposition to the American people 
that they have not yet developed even the rudi- 
ments of a system in this respect. 

There have appeared in recent years a few schools, such as 
the Lowell Textile School, whose aim is to train for specific 



THE UNITED STATES 77 

trades. These schools are not numerous, but the beginning 
is significant, as indicating a tendency to recognize the value of 
special training as a means of developing expert labor. Belong- 
ing to schools of this class, but less formally organized, should 
be mentioned schools or courses of training offered by such 
manufacturing institutions as the Baldwin Locomotive Works. 1 
The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910 
gives a list of 142 schools in the United States which offer 
training for specific vocations in the industries. "The number 
of trade schools proper is small, the greater number of those in 
the list offering only intermediate or supplementary training." 
" In general, there may be said to be three types or grades of 
industrial training : (1) Complete trade training, in which the 
effort is made to graduate finished mechanics or skilled workers 
capable of doing journeymen's work and earning journeymen's 
wages. (2) Intermediate, or preapprentice, trade training, in 
which it is sought to shorten the period of apprenticeship or to 
give skill and intelligence preparatory to an industrial occupa- 
tion. (3) Industrial improvement or supplementary instruc- 
tion for those already engaged in industrial pursuits. It will be 
seen that some schools offer all three of these types, some offer 
two of them, and others offer only one." 

The condition is set forth by the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- 
tion, in their second annual convention, 1908, 
as follows : " There are practically no facilities 

1 See Person, op. cit., p. 51. For account of cooperative scheme 
between the public school authorities of Beverly, Mass., and the 
local shoe industry, see Dean, op. cit., p. 241. Also Chap. 9 on 
"Supplemental Education in its Relation to Industry." 



78 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

for the training of the youth between the ages 
of fourteen and eighteen for industrial pursuits, 
and the opportunities for those who are in the 
trades to improve their skill by theoretical train- 
ing is confined to isolated and occasional schools. 
It is also perfectly clear that this is an industrial 
age, and that the education which is to serve for 
a whole people must take account of vocational 
training." 

The mistake is often made of assuming that 
the introduction of the subject of manual train- 
ing into the public schools is a concession to 
the interests of industrial education. The 
main purpose of the subject, in either the ele- 
mentary or secondary curriculum, is cultural and 
not vocational. Nevertheless, several manual 
training high schools, organized independently, 
have put such an emphasis upon the vocational 
phase that we might be justified in classing these 
particular schools as institutions for industrial 
education. 

Twenty years ago the subject of manual training was found 
in the public schools of less than forty cities, whereas to-day 
it appears in more than half of all the cities of the land. The 
first distinctive manual training high school was founded in 1880 
at St. Louis, and was followed within a half-dozen years by 



THE UNITED STATES 79 

similar schools in Chicago, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cleveland, 
Cincinnati, Denver, Omaha, etc. 

In the matter of secondary-grade commercial 
education there is no uncertainty. While this 
form of education is yet chiefly in the hands of 
private proprietors, the typical high schools in 
the larger cities have their commercial depart- 
ments in which the aim is frankly to prepare 
pupils for vocational efficiency. In several of 
the largest cities, supporting more than one 
general high school, the commercial school 
exists as a separate and distinct organization. 
" The Minnesota School of Agriculture, which 
was established by the Board of Regents of the 
University of Minnesota in 1888, was the first 
distinctly secondary school in the United States 
in which agricultural instruction was given." * 

In respect to vocational teaching of collegiate 
rank there is no lack of productive effort. The 
first technical school was the Rensselaer Poly- 
technic Institute, Troy, founded in 1824. The 
Sheffield School at Yale came in 1859, and to- 

1 Garland A. Bricker, " The Teaching of Agriculture in the High 
School," Macmillan, 1911, p. 15. See Report of Commissioner of 
Education, 1910, p. 255, for chapter on "Agricultural Education in 
the United States." 



So SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

day our colleges have nearly as many students 
enrolled in engineering alone as in the classical 
department. The first institution to provide 
commercial education of collegiate grade was 
the University of Pennsylvania, in 1881, followed 
by the Universities of Wisconsin, California, 
Chicago, Michigan, and others. The New York 
University School of Commerce is distinctively 
professional in character — its work is not a sub- 
stitute for a course in arts or science. Harvard 
has created the degree of Master in Business 
Administration to be conferred on graduates from 
the graduate school of business administration. 

Most systematic accomplishment has been 
made in collegiate teaching of agriculture, chiefly 
owing to the stimulus of land grants for this pur- 
pose from the national government to the States. 
Michigan was the pioneer State, its constitution 
of 1850 providing for an agricultural school whose 
establishment was effected seven years later. To- 
day every State has its agricultural college or col- 
legiate department, with a total enrollment through- 
out the country of some seven thousand students. 

" There is a National Association of these 
colleges which aims to make them equal in 



THE UNITED STATES 8 1 

rank and entrance conditions to other first-class 
colleges, so that the bachelor's degree in the 
former shall have the same value as it has in 
the latter. Six of these institutions conduct 
secondary schools. They also hold long and 
short, summer, winter, correspondence, extension, 
and normal courses, and conduct farmers' institutes 
all over the State. Some courses last only a week 
or ten days, and admit boys. They teach forestry, 
dairying, stock judging, manuring, entomology, 
birds, foddering, poultry, grasses, floriculture, etc. 
No discovery in these stations can be patented, but 
all must be given out. Even the Babcock Machine, 
used the world over and saving millions of dollars, 
profited the inventor nothing. Forty of these col- 
leges offer graduate courses leading to the degree 
of A.M., and nine grant the Ph.D." 1 

The present status of this subject, as well as a word of 
prophecy, is indicated by the following excerpt from Professor 
Davenport's "Education for Efficiency." "Agriculture has 
earned an honorable place in some of the great universities 
in America, where with respect both to research and instruc- 
tion, it is beginning to compare favorably with other profes- 
sional and scientific subjects. It will never, however, really 
reach the masses of the people in an adequate way until it 

1 G. Stanley Hall, "Educational Problems," Appleton, 191 1, 
Vol. I, p. 668. 



82 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



attains in the high school the same relative rank it has already 
attained in the college, nor will the work of its extension be 
fully done until in some form its influence has permeated into 
the grades." 1 

In the professional group there is no dearth 
of schools operated under private auspices. 
Some of these are independent institutions, but 
many others are but integral departments of a 
college or university engaged in several lines 
of work. The extent of opportunity for profes- 
sional training, and the number of students 
availing themselves of it, may perhaps best be 
shown in tabular form : — 

Professional Schools, 1909-1910 



Theological . 
Law .... 
Medical . . 
Dental . . . 
Pharmaceutical 
Veterinary . . 



Schools 



Instructors Students 



184 


1453 


114 


1543 


135 


7586 


53 


1546 


79 


815 


20 


35i 



11,012 

19.567 

21,394 
6,439 
6,226 
2,717 



In passing, attention should also be drawn to 
a fifth group of vocations, at present insignificant 

1 E. Davenport, "Education for Efficiency,' 1 Heath, 1909, p. 124. 
The introduction of nature study of a practical agricultural value into 
the elementary schools is also a theme of Dr. Foght's book, already 
quoted. 



THE UNITED STATES 8$ 

as to tangible systematic recognition of its needs, 
but nevertheless highly important in its far-reach- 
ing influence upon the welfare of the homes of 
the nation and hence of the nation itself. " The 
organization of the American Home Economics 
Association, Washington, December, 1908, has 
given a new impetus to one of the most im- 
portant branches of our industrial education, 
that which is commonly known as domestic 
economy or domestic science." 1 As it is, 1500 
students are already enrolled in regular four-year 
collegiate courses in household economy. 

Education of Girls 
Although the justice and expediency of grant- 
ing to girls even an elementary education at 
public expense was but tardily recognized, to-day 
there are in the United States over one hundred 
institutions of higher learning for women exclu- 
sively, and women constitute fully one third of 
the total number of students enrolled in colle- 
giate schools of all kinds. 

It was not until Revolutionary days that girls were admitted 
to the public schools of even so progressive a town as Boston. 
Some of the academies of New England were open to girls as 

1 Commissioner's Report, Washington, 1909, p. 11. 



84 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

early as the closing years of the eighteenth century, but it was 
much later that a public secondary education of any kind was 
available to them. The opening of the Girls' Latin School, in 
1878, gave Boston girls their first opportunity to be fitted for 
college. In Philadelphia, no girls could be prepared for col- 
lege in the public schools before 1893. The opening to women 
of higher institutions of learning began with the founding of 
Oberlin Collegiate Institute, in 1833, which from the beginning 
was coeducational. The first institution exclusively for women 
was Mt. Holyoke, chartered in 1836 ; this was followed a year 
later by the Troy Female Seminary. In 1861, Matthew Vassar 
founded the Vassar Female College, with the statement that 
"It seemed to me that woman, having received from her 
Creator the same intellectual constitution as man, has the 
same right to intellectual culture and development." 

Throughout the elementary schools coeduca- 
tion is the general policy — at least it is the 
prevailing practice. In secondary education, 
too, the majority of high schools are coeduca- 
tional. 1 In the range of higher education many 
colleges have followed the initiative of Oberlin, 
and opened their gates to women. With but 
one or two exceptions all of the State univer- 
sities are coeducational, and, in all, more than 
two thirds of the higher institutions which admit 
men also admit women on favorable if not on 

1 For discussion, see Report of Commissioner of Education, 
1910, p. 127. 



THE UNITED STATES 85 

equal terms. The University of Wisconsin is 
one of the foremost exponents of coeducation, 
indicated by the resolution of the Board of 
Regents that " men and women shall be equally 
entitled to membership in all classes of the 
university, and there shall be no discrimination 
on account of sex in granting scholarships or 
fellowships in any of the colleges or depart- 
ments of the university." 

Mrs. Olin, in a recent book, 1 discusses the advance of women 
in this institution and generally in the colleges of the Middle 
West. She supports the argument for coeducation and equal 
opportunity for women in vigorous language, of which the fol- 
lowing unequivocal excerpt is illustrative: "Social problems 
now being clumsily fumbled by faculties of men might find 
easy solution if masculine impatience and incapacity in prac- 
tical dealing with such problems were not as inevitable as they 
are notorious. No social question can be satisfactorily settled 
with so large an eclipse of human intelligence as is involved 
in the practical exclusion of women from the faculties of co- 
educational institutions." 

1 Helen R. Olin, " The Women of the State University," Put- 
nam's, 1909. Excerpt at p. 299. 



CHAPTER VI 

GERMANY 

" I think any one who reads in the German pedagogical lit- 
erature of our day has now and then a sense of hopelessness of 
any educational originality. The range of its suggestion is in 
fact astounding. The new plan and conception of educational 
procedure which is just dawning above his horizon is very likely 
to appear in some German pamphlet or even in some ' Hand- 
buch der Padagogik ' as a familiar notion, the boundaries of 
which have been well marked out and its values weighed in the 
balance." — Brown, "Government by Influence," p. 127. 

As in America, so in Germany there is no na- 
tional system of schools ; but, as in America the 
schools of the nation exhibit sufficient uniformity 
of character to justify the expression "the Ameri- 
can schools, " so throughout the German Empire 
an even greater conformity to a type permits us to 
speak of " the German schools." Politically, Ger- 
many consists of four kingdoms, six grand duchies, 
five duchies, seven principalities, three free cities, 
and one imperial territory, — in all, twenty-six in- 
dependencies ; but, whether considered from the 
standpoint of area or population, the single king- 

86 



GERMANY 87 

dom of Prussia constitutes three fifths of the Em- 
pire. It comes about naturally, then, that students 
of education, especially foreign observers, speak 
of Prussian and of German schools in practically 
interchangeable terms; and it is true that, while 
the other states have developed their own distinc- 
tive systems, the Prussian fairly stands as the 
prevailing type. 

For centuries the German leaders have been 
developing, and the German people supporting, 
an educational system which in its present-day 
expression is a most effective instrument for the 
accomplishment of the educational aims of the 
nation. In the words of Dean Russell, 1 "... 
the German school system is a living progres- 
sive institution that has changed from age to age 
in response to the changing ideals of successive 
periods. At no time has it been a finished prod- 
uct which could be studied apart from the politi- 
cal, social, industrial, and spiritual conditions of 
the people by whom it has been supported and 
for whom it still exists. It is the natural evolu- 
tion of forces inherent in the German life ; it is 

1 James E. Russell, " German Higher Schools," Longmans, Green, 
1907, p. 107. 



88 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the result of a process of adaptation to German 
environment, it is an educational product peculiar 
to the Fatherland." It is this peculiar product 
which we now proceed to consider in detail. 

Infant Education 

Practically no attention is given to infant edu- 
cation in the school systems of Germany. This 
nation which gave the world the discoverer of 
the kindergarten has never indorsed his idea in 
any whole-hearted manner. Froebel established 
his first kindergarten at Blankenburg, in 1837, 
but so little favor did it meet that between the 
years 185 1 and 1861 it was officially prohibited 
in Prussia, and even to-day has not been incorpo- 
rated in the public school system of that kingdom. 
Even the private kindergartens are not largely 
attended. 

Elementary Education 

More than nine tenths of the children of school 
age are in the public elementary schools, known 
as the Volksschulen (people's schools), and char- 
acterized as the " most magnificent system of com- 
mon schools in the world." The course extends 



GERMANY 89 

through eight years and is designed for those des- 
tined to service in the ordinary vocations. Less 
than 20 per cent of the schools of this grade 
have eight classes, the prevailing type, of course, 
being the rural school of from one to six classes. 

Most pupils who are scheduled for secondary 
education never attend the Volksschulen, but go 
directly to the preparatory classes maintained by 
most of the secondary schools and known as the 
Vorschulen. 

Auxiliary education is given in what are termed 
Hilfsschulen. For the deaf and dumb about 
100 institutions are maintained, and for the blind 
about half as many. For the feeble-minded 
Prussia alone maintains over 200 schools, en- 
rolling about 15,000, with less than 19 pupils per 
teacher. They are fully organized and set apart 
from the regular schools. 1 In 19 10, 73 cities in 
the Empire had established such schools, with the 
effective result that the great majority of the 
pupils are turned out self-supporting. In smaller 
towns special classes for defectives are attached to 
the ordinary schools, under the name Nebenklasse. 

1 See B. Maennel, "The Auxiliary Schools of Germany," Wash- 
ington, 1907, p. 123. 



90 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

"In the establishment of special classes for mentally de- 
ficient children, Germany was the pioneer, and began the work 
in 1867. In Prussia since 1880 special schools or classes have 
been required in all cities of 20,000 or more. In some cases 
Germany has special schools ; in others, special classes for these 
children." 1 

Secondary Education 

The tidhere Schulen (high schools) are not high 
schools in the American sense. They receive 
pupils, not upon their completion of the elemen- 
tary course, but at about ten years of age, giving 
them a nine-year curriculum of a distinctively 
secondary character. These schools are of three 
kinds : the Gymnasium, the Oberrealschule, and 
the Realgymnasium. 

The Gymnasium is the classical school where 
the emphasis is placed upon the Greek and 
Roman languages and literatures. Its aim is 
that of mental " discipline," as is noted from its 
title, which implies the value of mental gym- 
nastics. 

It dates back nearly half a millennium. "In 152 1, Latin, 
Greek, and Hebrew were introduced into the old cathedral 
school, and five years later Melanchthon inaugurated a new 
secondary school embodying his curriculum. By this time 

1 George B. Mangold," Child Problems," Macmillan, 1910, p. 132. 



GERMANY 9 1 

many other city schools had been remodeled, and the term 
gymnasium began to be used to indicate the schools of the 
new discipline." 1 

In many smaller towns it is impossible to sup- 
port a full-graded Gymnasium, and the resulting 
institution, lacking some, usually three, of the 
highest grades, is known as a Progymnasium. 

The Oberrealschule, the second of the three 
kinds of secondary school, is the extension of the 
Realschule, and represents the headway gained 
by the modern scientific spirit over the purely 
classical ideal. Neither Latin nor Greek is 
studied, and there is a preponderance of science 
and modern language. 

The Realgymnasium is the expression of com- 
promise between the two extremes of classical 
and scientific aims. The first organized was in 
Berlin, in 1828. The law ordering the opening 
of the Realgymnasium in Wiesbaden, in 1845, 
well states the purpose of this kind of school as 
being to provide " a general scientific preparatory 
education for those who intend to devote them- 
selves to a technical-practical profession, and who, 

1 Paul Monroe, " A Textbook in the History of Education," Mac- 
millan, 1907, p. 391. 



92 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

immediately after graduation, enter upon it, or 
who intend to continue their studies in a profes- 
sional school or polytechnical university." 

The nine classes of one year each, into which 
the course in all three of these secondary schools 
is divided, are termed in order, from the begin- 
ning : sexta, quinta, quarta, untertertia, obertertia, 
untersecunda, obersecunda, unterprima, oberprima. 
Pupils to be admitted must be nine years of age 
and have had three years of preparation, which is 
received either in the public or private elementary 
schools, or in the Vorschulen ( Vorgymnasia) 
already referred to. 

In 1900 equality between these three kinds of 
secondary school was established by royal rescript. 
Graduation from any one of these entitles the 
student to enter the university. Attendance for 
six years gains for him exemption of one year 
from the two years of army service required 
of every male citizen. Certain other civic and 
professional privileges are accorded varying 
lengths of attendance. 1 

1 See Russell, op. at., p. 469, for a table showing privileges 
attaching to Prussian secondary schools in 1904. He characterizes, 
p. 412, the whole system of privileges as "the bane of German 
secondary schools." 



GERMANY 



93 



Over 300,000 students are enrolled in the 
secondary schools of the empire. The relative 
attendance on the three kinds may be stated in 
general terms : about one half are in the Gymna- 
sium and two thirds of the remainder in the 
Oberrealschule. 

In addition to these three varieties of schools 
giving secondary education proper, there exist in 
Prussia and a few other North German States, 
Mittelschulen (intermediate schools), " the aims of 
which reach beyond those of the elementary 
school, thus occupying an intermediate position 
between the latter and the Realschule and Gym- 
nasium." 1 Prussia has some 150,000 pupils in 

1 W. Lexis, " A General View of the History and Organization 
of Public Education in the German Empire," Berlin, 1904, p. 104. 
The chief difference between the Mittelschulen and the Volksschulen 
has been that in the former French and English are taught. How- 
ever, the Prussian " middle schools have recently (March, 1910) 
been reorganized by ministerial order, which provides (1) that they 
shall increase the number of compulsory grades from eight to nine, 
the lowest three, or even five, grades being parallel to the same 
grades in ordinary elementary schools ; (2) that the local authorities 
may establish them without the three lowest grades, drawing the 
pupils from other primary schools, as high schools do ; (3) that 
there is no objection to changing secondary schools without Latin 
(so-called Realschuleri) into middle schools, if the local authorities 
so desire ; (4) that in all middle schools tuition fees may be charged ; 
while the eight years 1 elementary schools remain gratuitous ; (5) that 



94 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

attendance at these schools. In Saxony the inter- 
mediate school is known as the Higher Elemen- 
tary School. 

Higher Education 

In this land of precise thinking and systematic 
administration there exists no such confusion as 
prevails in America, as to the status of institu- 
tions for higher education — the university stands 
unique and supreme. Heidelberg, the oldest, 
dates its establishment to 1385, and Berlin, 1 
Munich, and Leipzig, to-day the three with the 
largest number of students, to 1809, 1826, and 
1409, respectively. 2 Early in the nineteenth 

as a rule middle schools shall not be coeducational, but that for boys 
and girls separate middle schools shall be established as soon as the 
number of pupils permits ; (6) that the three upper classes in middle 
schools shall in no case have more than 45 students, the lower may 
have as high as 50 ; (7) that women may be appointed as principals 
of girls' middle schools ; (8) that in small communities middle schools 
may prepare to assume the character of secondary schools if they 
teach Latin and possibly Greek." * 

* Report of Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 478. 

1 Berlin, with an enrollment of about 15,000, is the second largest 
university in the world, Paris alone exceeding it in size 

2 The complete list is : — 

Heidelberg 1385 Freiburg 1457 

Leipzig 1409 Tubingen 1477 

Rostock 1419 Marburg 1527 

Greifswald 1456 Konigsberg 1544 



GERMANY 95 

century the equality of the four faculties — theol- 
ogy, law, medicine, and philosophy — was estab- 
lished. It is the prevailing custom for students to 
attend more than one institution, frequently four 
or five. The individual university does not com- 
mand the allegiance which is given to our Ameri- 
can colleges and universities, but students are 
rather attracted to particular professors and par- 
ticular courses, and seek these wherever they are 
to be found. There is no prescribed length of 
course, each student deciding for himself when he 
shall present himself for his degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy, the only one granted by the German 
university. 1 The degree is issued by the particu- 
lar institution, upon extended examination and 
the presentation of a printed dissertation, but the 
student's previous work at other universities is 

Jena 1558 Breslau 1702 

Braunsberg 1568 Gottingen 1737 

Wiirzburg 1582 Erlanger 1743 

Giessen 1607 Munster 1780 

Strassburg 1621 Berlin 1809 

Kiel 1665 Bonn 1818 

Halle 1694 MUnchen 1826 

See Friedrich Paulsen, " The German Universities," Longmans, 
Green, 1906, p. 443. 

1 Except that in the theological faculty there are still two academi- 
cal degrees, the lower one of Licentiate and the higher one of Doctor. 



96 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

given full credit. The students in all of the 
twenty-one universities of the empire number 
over 50,000 with the largest proportion of them 
in philosophy, and the others in law, medicine, 
and theology, in the order named. 

The esteem in which the German universities 
are held is voiced by Professor Ladd, when he 
says that it is chiefly because they " most worth- 
ily realize the ideal of the highest free and 
scientific culture that they are confessedly supe- 
rior to all others, — confessedly, on the part of 
the most thoughtful and well-informed educators 
under rival systems" . . . "for every university 
in Germany, by its theory and custom alike, 
undertakes worthily to realize this admirable 

ideal." l 

Vocational Education 

Germany has gone far in establishing institu- 
tions of all grades for the furthering of vocational 
education, and to this is due in no small measure 
her present industrial and commercial supremacy. 2 

1 George Trumbull Ladd, " Essays on the Higher Education," 
Scribner, 1899, p. 31. As an offset, read criticism of German uni- 
versities by the Rector of the University of Munich, Professor Herman 
Paul, in Report of Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 491. 

2 For the history of the development of the Prussian system of 
vocational schools, see " Verwaltungsbericht des Koniglich Preuss- 



GERMANY 97 

For those children who have had no school- 
ing beyond that of the Volksschule, continuation 
schools are provided, not only for the purpose 
of cultivating vocational efficiency, but also of 
reviewing studies already gone over, of sustain- 
ing and reenforcing interest in study, and of fixing 
good habits and contributing to moral living. 
These schools, enrolling in Prussia alone nearly 
a half-million pupils, are known as Fortbildung- 
schulen, and are of the three classes, Industrie 
(industrial), Kaufmannische (commercial), and 
Landwirthschaftliche (rural). Some of the rural 
schools give a limited amount of technical agri- 
cultural instruction, but their chief object is to 
extend and strengthen the elementary education 
of the rural people. Sessions are held, principally 
in the winter, on evenings and Sunday after- 
noons. Similarly, in the industrial and commer- 
cial extension courses, the sessions occupy 
evenings and Sundays and total six to ten hours 
per week. 

Of institutions secondary in rank there are 
many of all kinds, industrial, agricultural, and 

ischen Landesgewerbeamts," Berlin, 1910. Translated in part in 
Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 301. 



98 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

commercial. The higher grade technical schools 
demand six years of secondary instruction as an 
entrance requirement, whereas many of the other 
institutions " accept a still smaller amount of pre- 
paratory general schooling, but all of them insist 
on the pupils having gone through some practical 
training in their trades. The lower professional 
schools for artisans, foremen, etc., demand only the 
previous training of the elementary school." * 

There is a large variety of industrial schools, 
the chief groups being: (1) institutions approach- 
ing technical schools of higher education rank, 
having a stated course of two or more years ; 
(2) Baugewer/cesckulen (building-trades schools), 
admission to which in Prussia, for example, is 
upon the completion of elementary instruction, 
age requirement of 16 years, and employment 
for at least two summers in building or work- 
shops ; (3) Handwerkeschulen (also Gewerbeschtden 
and Kunstgewerbeschulen) for various handicrafts, 
pottery, tile making, etc. , with courses extending 
over a year or semester with full-day teaching ; 
(4) schools for various textile industries ; (5) min- 
ing schools ; and (6) schools of navigation. 

1 Lexis, op. cit., p. 166. 



GERMANY 



99 



Of agricultural schools of this rank there 
are four notable groups : (i) those schools having 
the character of Realschulen, of which there are 
a score in Prussia ; (2) farming schools for direct 
training in practical agriculture; (3) winter schools, 
where the teaching is purely theoretical; and 
(4) schools for instruction in special branches, as, 
for instance, meadow cultivation, horticulture, 
dairy farming, bee culture, etc. 

As to commercial schools, of this and other 
grades, there are many, widely distributed and 
of marked influence. " Saxony has well been 
termed the classic land for furnishing special 
instruction to the merchant class. Not in Saxony 
alone, but in other divisions of the Empire, mer- 
cantile schools have long constituted an impor- 
tant division in the systems of education." 1 

The oldest of these institutions, known as middle or high 
commercial schools, is the Oeffentliche Handelslehranstalt in 
Leipzig, founded in 1830 by the Trade Schools Guild, and in 
1888 taken under general supervision by the Chamber of Com- 
merce. It has a three-year course in technical and general 
subjects, and admits students at the age of 14 or 15. 

Higher education along vocational lines is also 

1 Cheesman A. Herrick, "Meaning and Practice of Commercial 

Education, 1 ' Macmillan, 1904, p. 74. 



IOO SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

extremely well worked out. Professional instruc- 
tion in law, medicine, and theology forms, as we 
have noted, an integral part of the university work. 

Technical instruction is given in technical high 
schools or polytechnica, of which there are ten in 
the empire, with an enrollment exceeding 2 5,ooo. 1 
Training is given in all four technical departments : 
architecture, civil engineering, mechanical engi- 
neering, and technical chemistry. In general, 
students must be graduates of a secondary school, 
and they obtain, after an average attendance of 
four years, the diploma of Certificated Engineer. 

As distinguished from these polytechnica, there 
is a variety of monotechnical schools, each teach- 
ing the technique of a single art. These, known 
as high schools for special subjects, impart "the 
highest scientific education in their subjects," 
and demand the same previous schooling as do 
the universities. 

As classified by Lexis, 2 they are, with dates of founding : — 
i. Mining Academies : Berlin, 1770; Clausthal (Prussia), 
1775; Freiberg (Saxony), 1766. 

2. Forestry Academies: Eberswalde (Prussia), 1830; 

1 They are located as follows : Aachen, Berlin, Brunswick, Dan- 
zig, Darmstadt, Dresden, Hanover, Karlsruhe, Munich, Stuttgart. 

2 Op. cit., p. 151 et seq. 



GERMANY IOI 

Miinden (Prussia), 1868; Tharandt (Saxony), 181 1; Aschaf- 
fenburg (Bavaria), 1807; Eisenach (Saxe-Weimar), 1830. 

3. Agricultural High Schools: Berlin, 1870;] Bonn-Pop- 
pelsdorf (Prussia), 1847; Hohenheim (Wiirttemberg), 1818; 
Weihenstephau (Bavaria), 1804. 

4. Veterinary High Schools: Berlin, 1887; Hanover 
(Prussia), 1887; Munich (Bavaria), 1890; Dresden (Saxony), 
1889; Stuttgart (Wiirttemberg), 1890. 

5. Commercial High Schools: Cologne (Prussia), 1900; 
Frankfort (Prussia) , 1901 ; Leipzig (Saxony), 1898. 

6. High Schools of Art : Berlin, 1696 ; Diisseldorf, Cassel, 
Konigsberg (Prussia), Munich (Bavaria), Dresden (Saxony), 
Stuttgart (Wiirttemberg). 

7. High Schools of German Army and Navy Administra- 
tion : (1) Berlin ; (2) Kiel ; (3) Munich. 

Education of Girls 

Separate education of boys and girls is the 
preferred policy in Germany, but owing to its 
impracticability in the rural schools, two thirds of 
the children in the Volksschulen are in mixed 
classes. In the cities, however, less than half of 
this proportion is found. 

In secondary education separate schools is the 
universal rule, and the schools for girls are of a 
distinctive character. For many years they were 
rated only as advanced elementary schools, or 
Mittelsckulen. The first gymnasium for girls 



102 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

was established in 1893 in Berlin and was followed 
by others. " In all these schools the curricula are 
planned to supplement the earlier training of 
girls, that they may graduate on a level with the 
boys of the gymnasium." * In order that they may 
accomplish this the course extends over ten years. 
The enrollment in the higher girls' schools is 
about two thirds of that of the boys. 

Underact of August 15, 1908, Prussia estab- 
lished a new plan for the higher education of girls 
by which girls with three years of elementary school 
preparation are given a seven-years course from 
which they graduate at about sixteen years of age. 
Upon graduation from this grade of school three 
forms of higher education are open: (1) a two- 
years course in various subjects — educational 
psychology, hygiene, housekeeping, bookkeeping, 
political economy, etc. ; (2) the seminary for 
those preparing to teach ; (3) the Studien-Anstalt, 
an institution of Realgymnasium type. 

Higher education of women has been persist- 
ently frowned upon by official Germany, although 
for some time women have been permitted in- 
formal attendance upon lectures. In 1903, for 

1 Russell, op. cit.y p. 132. 



GERMANY IO3 

the first time, women were granted matriculation 
in a German university. This was in Munich, 
and since then other universities have conceded 
to women all academic rights, so that now there 
are more matriculated than non-matriculated 
women students in the German universities. 1 

By way of summary of the more recent atti- 
tude of Germany towards its women, we may well 
quote from Professor Munsterberg. 2 " The ef- 
forts of this new Germany in the interests of the 
women have taken four different forms, four 
tendencies, which naturally hang together, but 
externally are sometimes even antagonistic. The 
first movement, which applies to the largest num- 
ber of individuals, is that which tends to soften 
the hardships of the female wage earner, espe- 
cially among the laborers; the second seeks to 

1 1 909-1 9 10, Nonmatriculated 1928 

Matriculated : 

Berlin 638 

Munich 183 

Gottingen 160 

Heidelberg 142 

Bonn 135 

Total, with others 2324 

2 Hugo Munsterberg, "American Traits," Houghton, Mifflin, 
1902, p. 133. 



104 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

raise the character of the general education of 
girls in the higher classes ; the third endeavors to 
open new sources of income to the better educated 
women of narrow circumstances; and the fourth 
has as its aim the clearing of the way for women 
of special talent, that they may live out their 
genius for the good of humanity." 



CHAPTER VII 

FRANCE 

" The French are not deficient in sentiment. No one can 
know them even from their literature, or from the most superficial 
travel, — still more, no one can come to know them as personal 
friends, — without recognizing the deep, spontaneous genuine- 
ness of their emotional nature. This phase of their temperament 
as a nation is more pronounced, if possible, than the admirable 
intellectual one on which our consideration of the French univer- 
sities has touched. Rather paradoxically, however, it is less evi- 
dent in their educational surroundings and systems than almost 
anywhere else." — Wendell, "The France of To-day," p. 46. 

In turning our attention from America and 
Germany to France, we turn from a certain in- 
difference to systematization of schools to the 
spirit which has attempted to reduce to a corre- 
lated system the whole range of educational ac- 
tivity. France stands preeminent among the 
nations as the exponent of centralized authority, 
reaching out from the capital city into every school 
at the remotest crossroads. The result is a sys- 
tem of schools which, at least from the standpoint 
of beauty of administration as administration, chal- 
lenges and receives the admiration of the world. 

105 



106 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The frankly expressed aim is at uniformity of 
structure ; the consequent danger is a uniformity 
of detailed management and method which may 
deaden all interest in the truest forms of education. 
That bureaucratic control has already seriously im- 
paired the schools is freely asserted by foreign 
critics ; as, for instance, by Dr. Draper, who says 
that French pupils are " trained for examinations 
and for routine, rather than for power." * At home 
a certain acceptance of this criticism is evidenced 
by efforts to introduce a larger measure of local 
authority and to take such measures in internal 
management as shall more positively encourage 
initiative and individuality. We are here con- 
cerned, however, with noting the structure of the 
schools as it appears to-day. 

Infant Edtication 
France is among the leading nations of the 
world in respect to the schooling of children of ten- 
der age, over a half million being thus provided 
for. 2 These schools are not, however, to be re- 
garded as kindergartens, for they do not follow 

1 Draper, op. cit., p. 14. 

2 Of the reported enrollment, 1908, of 631,287, 515,190 were in 
public schools. 



FRANCE 107 

the teachings of Froebel, but exist chiefly for 
social and economic reasons. They are primarily 
designed in the interest of the mothers whose 
household or business duties demand all their 
time, relieving them of the care of their young 
children — those from two to seven years of age. 
The hours at school are long, frequently from 
7 a.m. to 7 p.m., and there is much work and little 
play. The teachers are women, most of whom are 
not specially trained. These infant schools are of 
two kinds : the ecoles maternelles (maternal schools) 
and the classes enfantines (infant classes). The 
former are independent schools, supported only 
in the cities ; the latter are classes attached to the 
elementary schools in those communities where it 
is impossible to maintain separate schools. 

Elementary Schools 
As in Germany, so here the elementary schools 
are not designed to prepare pupils for secondary 
work. The most complete elementary course 
covers nine years, but it is in but few communi- 
ties that this complete course is available. In fact, 
most of the rural schools support only four years. 
The complete elementary school is known as the 
ecole primaire. This, it will be seen, is not to be 



108 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

confused with the American use of primary, to 
indicate the earlier part of the elementary course. 
The ecole primaire is divided into two groups: 
the ecole primaire elementaire (lower elementary 
school) and the ecole primaire superieure (higher 
elementary school), with courses, respectively, of 
six and of three years. The lower schools receive 
their pupils at the age of seven, and divide their 
work into three grades of two years each, termed, 
in succession, the cours elementaire, the cours 
moyen, and the cours superieure. The work of 
the higher schools supplements that of the 
lower schools, but these schools are maintained 
in only the more able communities, and else- 
where are replaced by a modified form. This 
modification consists in attaching to the six 
years of the ecole primaire elementaire, a sort of 
post-graduate year or two, known as the cours 
complementaire. The public primary schools 
enroll close to five million pupils, and private 
schools add a million more. 

Auxiliary Education 

Institutions to the number of about 130 care 
for abnormal children. The enrollment of the 



PRANCE I09 

deaf exceeds 2000; of the blind, 1000; of the 
crippled, 500; and of the feeble-minded, 2000. 
The oldest of the schools for imbeciles is at 
Paris and was founded in 181 2. Special schools 
and classes for the mentally defective in connec- 
tion with the public school system have been but 
recently provided for. They are known as classes et 
ecoles de perfectionnement pour les en/ants arri'er'es, 
and were organized under laws and decrees of 1 908 
and 1909. 

Secondary Education 
Secondary education is provided by two forms 
of schools which vary chiefly as to the manner of 
their direction. The lyc'ee is supported by the 
central government and is found chiefly in the 
cities. The college is supported by local commu- 
nities, and seems to be taking on more and more 
the character of the higher primary schools. 1 
Pupils enter either of these two secondary schools 
at an average age of nine and follow one of four 
optional parallel seven-year courses, — classical, 

1 " Although the colleges follow the same official programs as 
the lyce'es, few of them offer the full secondary course of instruction, 
so that they have formed a sort of inferior order of secondary 
schools, or a preparatory stage to the upper section of the lyce'es." 
— Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 413. 



IIO SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Latin-modern language, Latin-science, or modern 
language-science. 1 Few pupils enter from the 
ecole primaire, but come from private schools or 
from preparatory departments with a two-years 
course attached to the lyc'ee. Provision is made 
for both day and boarding pupils, and upon the 
completion of any one of the four courses the 
degree of bachelier is awarded. This degree 
entitles the holder to certain privileges as to 
preferment in the civil service, and to admission 
to any faculty of the university. Thus the lyc'ee 
is recognized as practically the only pathway to 
the field of civic employment and positions of 
trust and honor. The work of the lycee is accom- 
plished not without the loss of a certain freedom 
and spontaneity, such, for example, as we meet in 
our American high schools. Hughes criticizes 
the lycee by saying that " no school in the world 
is so effective in suppressing individuality." 2 
There are about twice as many colleges as lycees, 
and together they enroll some 100,000 students; 
more, however, in the urban lycees than in the 
more numerous but smaller colleges. In addi- 

1 This statement is not exact. See p. 231. 

2 Op. cit., p. 215. 



FRANCE III 

tion, the students in private secondary institu- 
tions number above 60,000. 

Higher Education 
Higher education is provided by universities, 
fifteen in all, grouped into a system, with the Uni- 
versity of Paris as the center and leader. The 
University of Paris grew out of the cathedral 
school of Notre Dame somewhere between the 
years 11 40 and 11 70, and, with an enrollment 
fast approaching 20,000, it is beyond question the 
largest university in the world. The other uni- 
versities are located at Aix-Marseille, Besancon, 
Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, 
Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and 
Toulouse, with one also at Alger. Some have all 
four faculties : letters, science, law, and medicine. 1 
Law attracts more students than any other two 
faculties together. Graduation from either course, 
which is four years in length, is marked by the 
degree of licencie. Post-graduate courses are 
offered, leading, after prolonged work including 

1 A total, in 1908, of 13 Law with 16,315 students 

7 Medicine with 7220 students 

15 Sciences with 6258 students 

15 Letters with 6201 students 

Total, with pharmacy, 39)890 students 



112 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the preparation and defense of two theses, to the 
degree of Doctor of Science or Doctor of Letters. 
At the University of Paris the degree of agreg'e 
is also awarded, upon rigid examination. 

In addition to these State universities, there are 
private, independent universities under clerical au- 
spices, at Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyon, Marseilles, 
and Toulouse. There are also certain special 
schools of university rank, under government di- 
rection and support, the College de France, Prac- 
tical School of High Studies, Museum of Natural 
History, School of Oriental Languages, Ecole 
Nationale des Beaux-Arts, and others. 

Vocational Education 

In this sphere France is well abreast of modern 
effort. The ecole primaire superieure has usu- 
ally a combination general and vocational course. 
That is, the school has a general course of three 
years, with alternatives for the last two years of 
special courses in agriculture, commerce, or in- 
dustry. There is, too, another group of schools 
of the same grade, under the control of the Min- 
istry of Commerce and Industry. They are 
known as ecole s pratiques de commerce et a" Indus- 



FRANCE 113 

trie, and give a practical course of full three years 
in either industrial or commercial lines. 

Of secondary rank, there are several ecoles na- 
tionales (Tarts et metiers, with a three-year course, 
and ecoles superieures de commerce with a course 
of not more than two years. 

" The fact that the secondary schools exist primarily for the 
recruitment of the professional classes renders the likelihood of 
introducing vocational training into the schools more remote 
than ever. Such is the pressure imposed upon teachers and 
pupils alike by the examinations impending at the end of the 
course, that a subject not required by this test has small chance 
of fair treatment in the schools, especially as the examination 
period approaches. The lack of consideration devoted to the 
relative values of the various subjects militates decidedly 
against the prospect of any immediate change in this regard." 1 

As to higher grade vocational education it is 
said that " Perhaps no country is so well provided 
as France with universities and educational in- 
stitutions providing scientific instruction of the 
highest order." 2 Among these are the Ecole 
centrale des arts et manufactures, at Paris ; the 
Ecole nationale d' agriculture, at Rennes ; several 

1 Frederic Ernest Farrington, " French Secondary Schools," 
Longmans, Green, 1910, p. 383. 

2 Fabian Ware, " Educational Foundations of Trade and Indus- 
try," London, 1901, p. 221. 



114 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

thriving polytechnics ; and schools of commerce, 
of war, of mines, and of other technical branches. 

Education of Girls 

In the elementary schools coeducation is toler- 
ated only in the rural schools ; every commune of 
500 or more inhabitants is obliged by law to 
provide separate schools for girls. In 1897 the 
total enrollment in mixed elementary schools was 
but 13 per cent. 

Recognition of the needs of girls as to secon- 
dary education came comparatively late. In the 
words of Professor Farrington, " Of all the reforms 
in the field of secondary education that have been 
carried out under the Third Republic, the most 
significant has been the establishment of lyc'ees 
for girls under the law of December 21, 1880." x 
The first of these to be founded was at Rouen. 
These schools admit girls at the age of twelve 
and give them a five years' course in two periods 
of three and two years, during the second of 
which electives are offered. Some 30,000 girls 
are enrolled in the lyc'ees and colleges thus insti- 
tuted. 

1 Farrington, op. cit., p. 79. 



FRANCE 115 

In the universities, men and women students 
are on equal terms in all faculties and are ac- 
corded the same degrees. Women now constitute 
approximately 10 per cent of the total university 
enrollment. 



CHAPTER VIII 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 

"Popular education in England has been a slow growth, 
beset by enemies, or rather by friends who were so anxious to 
have the good work prosper in their own way that it has come 
near being torn in pieces of them. . . . But from a purely 
educational point of view it has reached a firmly established 
position in which rapid changes are improbable. Popular 
secondary education, on the other hand, although free from 
political complications, is still in the making." — Lowell, " The 
Government of England," Vol. II, p. 295, p. 324. 

The very antithesis to France in respect to 
School Administration is to be found just across 
the Channel. In that country where " every 
man's house is his castle," the spirit of individual- 
ism has prevented the development of any such 
centralized system as is to be seen on the con- 
tinent. To comprehend the complicated struc- 
ture of the English schools is a difficult matter at 
best. This land of paradox — with its sturdy 
sense of individual rights locked within a rigid 
mold of caste — may be the better understood if 
we permit a few of her own writers to speak for 

her. 

116 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 117 

Says Mr. Graham Balfour: "We can see 
England businesslike and unphilosophical, some- 
what lethargic in her prosperity, slowly realizing 
first the commercial advantages of education, and 
then the possibility of applying scientific methods 
to the process : great in self-government, yet dele- 
gating to the localities only those powers which 
she intends them to use; making a working com- 
promise at every step, and triumphantly disregard- 
ing consistency in details ; strong in her sense of 
duty, greatly proud of her ancient institutions, 
liberal in grants once her hand is opened. There 
are Wales and Scotland, to whom education is 
far more dear: Wales, in a newly born fervor 
for knowledge, producing, as it were by magic, 
order out of chaos ; Scotland, thrifty, prosperous, 
and wise ; with an ecclesiastical history ' the most 
perverse and melancholy in man's annals,' yet 
without a religious difficulty in her schools ; hav- 
ing taught her children for centuries past to mind 
their book and get on in the world, and to be 
independent and upright — a lesson well learned 
at home and practiced with great success abroad. 
Last comes Ireland, poor and in subjection ; pas- 
sionately attached to her faith; lovable and un- 



Il8 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

reliable and helpless ; the child among nations ; 
the Celtic genius, mysterious and unpractical, 
1 always bound nowhere under full sail,' abandoned 
for long to obsolete methods and inadequate 
instruction, because reform meant the calling up 
of many quarrels." 1 

And Miss Burstall : " We have never elimi- 
nated our minorities, we have preserved feudal and 
social distinctions into an intensely industrial and 
democratic era ; while the broad geographical 
distinctions of North or South, town and country, 
Celt and Saxon, are but the general indication of 
profound differences in the physical, intellectual, 
and spiritual conditions which inevitably influence 
educational needs. It would thus be impossible 
for any one type of school to satisfy the wants of 
the whole country." 2 

To the American it is difficult at times to think 
of the unorganized English schools in terms of 
appreciation, but we do well to keep in mind the 
caution voiced by Mr. Hughes : " This system 
is very close to the national life. There is but 

1 Graham Balfour, " The Educational Systems of Great Britain 
and Ireland," Oxford, 1903, p. xiii. 

a Sara A. Burstall, " English High Schools for Girls," Longmans, 
Green & Co., p. 16. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 119 

little of the professional detachment of the 
continental school seen in England. In all 
these respects the system is characteristic of 
the people. To quarrel with it is to quarrel 
with the national character. In its lack of 
unity, its diversity, its tendency to compromise, 
its respect for vested interests, its remarkable 
variations of efficiency, it is English." 1 

As already noted, the structure of the schools 
differs in the four different countries of Britain, 
so that we must consider each in turn. 

ENGLAND AND WALES 

Infant Education 
England is the foremost nation in the world in 
its provision of educational facilities of prelimi- 
nary grade. Over 2,000,000 children between 
the ages of three and seven are enrolled in the 
Infant Schools, which are " in reality ordinary 
schools for teaching the rudiments with some 
kindergarten attachments." 

Elementary Education 
Prior to 1870, elementary education was left 
entirely to the efforts of private individuals and 
1 op. tit., p. 63. 



120 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

societies. In that year, Parliament achieved a 
certain measure of control through the offering 
of public funds for school use. This control 
has naturally extended itself and has been more 
clearly defined by successive parliamentary acts. 
There is a broad classification of elementary 
schools into " provided " and " non-provided." 
The " provided " schools are those established by 
public authority and are known, too, as " board " 
or " council " schools, and therein " no dogmatic 
religious teaching may be given." The " unpro- 
vided " schools are those established by private 
venture, being in fact chiefly parochial. They 
are also, rather ambiguously, known as "volun- 
tary." They receive State aid only upon main- 
taining an acceptable standard as to buildings, 
equipment, and pedagogic work. Of the various 
denominational schools, the Church of England 
maintains over eighty per cent. 1 Pupils enter 

1 In 1908 : Council Schools 7408 

Voluntary Schools 

Church of England 11,180 

Wesleyan 294 

Roman Catholic 1064 

Jewish 12 

Undenominational 602 13,512 

Total 20,920 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 



121 



the elementary school at the age of seven and 
pursue a course normally of seven yearly grades 
known as " standards." The enrollment for Eng- 
land and Wales exceeds six million, and the per- 
centage of illiteracy is lower than in America. 

Auxiliary Education 

The extent to which auxiliary education is 
administered is shown by the following sum- 
mary : — 



Special Schools, 1908 

For the mentally or physically defective 
(First established in 1892) 

For the deaf 

For the blind 

For epileptics 




Enrollment 



13247 



3421 

1642 

2l6 



Secondary Education 

Secondary education is chiefly maintained 
through independent endowed schools. " The 
variety of the English grammar schools baffles 
the ingenuity of the generalizer." 1 This diversity 
is due largely to the various forms of control ex- 

1 Hughes, op. cit.) p. 303. 



122 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ercised by the proprietors. The chief of these 
are five in number : — 

i. Private adventure schools, controlled by 
private individuals or partners. 

2. Those controlled by a committee repre- 
senting subscribers not registered as a company. 

3. Those controlled by a Limited Liability 
Company. 

4. Those registered by royal charter, act of 
parliament, scheme of court chancery, or other 
legal instrument. 

5. Those controlled by local public authority. 
Of the boys' schools the greatest number are 

in the fourth and first groups ; of the girls 
and mixed schools, two thirds are in the first 
group. 

Secondary schools are not a link between pub- 
lic elementary schools and higher institutions. 
As Dr. Draper rather strongly puts it : " There 
is no educational mixing of classes, and no articu- 
lation or continuity of work. The controlling 
influence in English politics is distinctly opposed 
to universalizing education, through fear of un- 
settling the status and letting loose the ambitions 
of the serving classes. The placidity of the so- 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1 23 

cial organization seems of more moment than the 
strength of the Empire." 1 Students enter the 
secondary schools at from eleven to fourteen (or 
preparatory departments at as early an age as 
seven) and remain to the age of eighteen or nine- 
teen, proceeding then to the army, the university, 
or a profession. 

What are known in England as the great " pub- 
lic schools " are far different from those to which 
the term applies in America. These are the 
high-class secondary schools, characterized by 
Dr. Harris as " the conservatory of the higher 
caste of English society and exciting our admira- 
tion at the completeness of their equipment for 
this purpose." They are endowed, charge high 
fees, and accommodate both day and boarding 
students. They are some forty in number, of 
which seven, according to Sharpless, " would be 
included by the claims of history and character in 
every list of public schools." 2 These seven are, 
with the dates of their founding : Winchester, 
1387; Eton, 1441 ; Shrewsbury, 1551; West- 
minster, 1560; Rugby, 1567; Harrow, 1571 ; Char- 

1 Op. cit., p. 13. 

2 Isaac Sharpless, "English Education," Appleton, 1892, p. 106. 



124 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

terhouse, 1 609. 1 Besides these there is a large num- 
ber of modern public schools of vigorous growth. 

The total enrollment in all secondary schools 
exceeds 140,000. This does not include a tenth 
as many more who attend the higher elementary 
schools, a form of day school continuing the work 
of elementary education and ranked, according to 
law, together with the secondary schools, as 
"higher" schools, as distinguished from "ele- 
mentary." 

Higher Education 

The typical institution for higher education in 
Great Britain is the university, composed of a 
group of individual colleges or halls. 2 The Uni- 
versity of Oxford dates from 1167, and was prob- 
ably founded by students migrating from the 

1 There is a large number of books dealing with individual 
schools, some treating the subject historically, others by way of 
personal reminiscence. Among them are : Lionel Cust, "A History 
of Eton College," Scribner's, 1899; Arthur F. Leach, "A History of 
Winchester College," Scribner's, 1899 ; H. C. Maxwell Lyte, "A His- 
tory of Eton College," Macmillan, 1899; W. H. D. Rouse, "A His- 
tory of Rugby School," Macmillan, 1898; series of handbooks to 
the "Great Public Schools," George Bell and Sons, — Charterhouse, 
Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury, Winchester, St. Paul's, West- 
minster, Merchant Taylor, etc. 

2 " This English idea that a university is a mere multiplication 
of colleges is so firmly fixed that the very word is defined as ' a col- 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1 25 

famous University of Paris. It consists of 
twenty-one colleges and four halls, and together 
with Cambridge, founded in 1209 by emigration 
from Oxford, with seventeen colleges and one 
hall, enrolls some 7500 students. This enroll- 
ment is exceeded by the single university of 
London, founded in 1826 and reorganized in 
1858. It consists of twenty-nine colleges and 
schools and grants the degrees of Bachelor of 
Science and Doctor of Science. The other uni- 
versities as a rule grant only the Bachelor of Arts 

lection of institutions of learning at a common center.' In the daily 
life of the undergraduate, in his religious observances, and in regu- 
lating his studies, the college is supreme" (p. 8). 

"The English college, roughly speaking, is a medieval hall 
supported by a permanent fund which the socii or fellows adminis- 
ter 1 ' (p. 223). 

" The real founder of the English college was Walter de Merton. 
In 1264, Walter provided by endowment for the permanent mainte- 
nance of twenty scholars, who were to live together in a hall as a 
community; and in 1274 he drew up the statutes which fix the type 
of the earliest English college" (p. 224). 

" The first college to develop regular undergraduate instruction 
within its walls was 'S. Marie College of Winchester in Oxford,' 
founded in 1379, by William of Wykeham" (p. 226). 

The above quotations are from John Corbin, " An American at 
Oxford," Houghton, Mifflin, 1902, in which, too, will be found many 
interesting pages of personal reminiscence. See also Rev. W. 
Tuckwell, "Reminiscences of Oxford," London, 1907, and Hugh de 
Selincourt, "Oxford from Within," Chatto and Windus, 1910. 



126 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and Master of Arts. They are: Durham, Victoria 
(Manchester), Leeds, Liverpool, Sheffield, Bir- 
mingham, University of Wales. " The provincial 
universities are quite unlike Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, both in aims and methods. In many 
ways they resemble more nearly the Scotch uni- 
versities, and, no doubt from a similarity of con- 
ditions, the universities in America, especially 
the newer and smaller ones. In the first place, 
they are not collections of colleges, and do not 
undertake to foster the common life in an aca- 
demic community which is the dominant note by 
the Isis and the Cam. . . . The standard of gen- 
eral education is not so high as at Oxford or 
Cambridge, and there is a more prevalent tone of 
direct utility." ' 

The student's life is lived at his college, and it 
is around his college that his loyalty centers. 
Here he studies with a group of his fellows 
under the guidance of a tutor for a number of 
years, ranging from three to five according to his 
ability and industry. To complete his work he 
must pass rigid examinations at the university, 

1 A. Lawrence Lowell, " The Government of England, 11 Mac- 
millan, 1908, p. 351. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1 27 

and it is from the university that he receives his 

degree. 

Vocational Education 

England cannot be said to rank high in its 
provision of technical education. Said the 
Royal Commission, in 1884, "we seem particu- 
larly deficient as compared with some of our for- 
eign competitors; and this remark applies not 
only to what is usually called technical education, 
but to ordinary commercial education which is 
required in mercantile houses." Much has been 
done in the way of evening continuation schools, 1 
there being several thousand of these, but there is 
little of specialized vocational instruction given. 
There is, however, a growing movement toward 
the establishment of vocational schools of ele- 
mentary and secondary rank. We may instance 
London, where these schools are of three types : 
trade schools for girls ; technical day schools for 
boys, giving a special training in certain trades, 
and preparatory trade schools for boys. The 
schools of the first and second groups provide a 
two-year course for pupils entering at fourteen or 

1 See M. E. Sadler, ed., " Continuation Schools in England and 
Elsewhere/' Manchester, 1908, for bibliography. 



128 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

fifteen, while those of the third give a longer 
course, but admit the boys at a somewhat earlier 
age. In the plane of higher education the voca- 
tions are already well represented. The Univer- 
sity of London supports a faculty in economics 
and political science, including commerce and in- 
dustry, and provides courses leading to collegiate 
degrees. Similar courses have been developed in 
the Liverpool School of Commerce, in Man- 
chester and Birmingham Universities, and in 
other institutions. There is also liberal provi- 
sion for training in the professions, as well as in 
agriculture, art, and technical lines. 

Education of Girls 

In the elementary schools, sixty-five per cent 
of the classes are mixed ; in the secondary schools, 
separate schools are the rule, though in Wales 
they are largely coeducational. 

In 187 1 was founded the National Society for 
improving the Education of Women of all 
Classes, which later became the Women's Educa- 
tion Union. It had for one of its main objects 
the establishment of good public day schools 
for girls, in contradistinction to boarding schools. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1 29 

The present-day secondary schools for girls, 
which Miss Burstall classes in four types, 1 do not 
by any means give complete secondary education, 
the leaving age for most girls being sixteen or 
seventeen. 

In higher education the opportunities for 
women are constantly increasing. The first 
institution to give them a thorough professional 
training was Queen's College, in London, es- 
tablished in 1848 with the special purpose of 
preparing teachers and governesses. Although 
the oldest of the English female colleges, it is 
not the type of the present college. It was 
followed by Bedford College (London) in 1849, 
by Girton (Cambridge) in 1873, and by several 
others. In 1874, the London School of Medi- 
cine for Women was founded. In 1878, London 
University opened all its grades to women. The 
older institutions are more conservative, however. 
At Oxford, where there are five colleges for 
women, and at Cambridge, where there are two, 
no degrees are granted women, but they receive 

1 1 . Private schools, day or boarding. 

2. High schools proper, private, or proprietary. 

3. Middle schools, public for financial reasons. 

4. New semipublic, costly, boarding schools. 



130 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

a certificate that they have completed a course 
equivalent to the B.A. degree. 

SCOTLAND 

Some 800,000 pupils are enrolled in the ele- 
mentary schools, nearly all of which are coeduca- 
tional. The secondary school is, as a rule, 
continuous with the elementary and leads, in 
turn, directly to the university. Schools providing 
a three-year course of secondary education are 
called "intermediate" ; a five-year course, " second- 
ary." 

" For some years the Education Department has been 
steadily developing a great scheme of Secondary Education 
in Scotland. It has perforce proceeded slowly and gradually. 
Its whole aim was not apparent in the first circulars and min- 
utes. But now the end is in sight, the full development of the 
scheme is at hand. It will find Scotland in the possession of 
means for Higher Education such as she never before could 
boast. Buildings and equipment are being supplied ; teachers 
are being educated and trained ; and the capable child in the 
remotest part of the country has open to him a clear path from 
the primary school to the University or the Technical College. 
All this is the result of the steadily pursued policy of the Edu- 
cation Department." 1 

1 John Kerr, "Scottish Education," Cambridge, 1910, p. 407. See 
also John Strong, " A History of Secondary Education in Scotland," 
Oxford, 1909; contains also considerable reference to elementary 
and higher education. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 131 

Much has been done in providing continuation 
classes for pupils above the age of fourteen, where 
the crafts or industries of the locality are reen- 
forced, as well as advanced classes for commercial 
training. Higher education is given in four 
universities. These are: St. Andrews, the old- 
est, founded in 141 1, with which Dundee College 
was affiliated in 1897; Aberdeen, on two founda- 
tions, King's College in 1494, and Marischal 
College in 1593; Glasgow, since 1893, including 
Queen Margaret College for women ; and Edin- 
burgh, the largest of all, which replaces the old 
college, founded in 1582 by James VI. More 
than twice as many students, in proportion to 
the population, are in university attendance in 
Scotland as there are in England. 

IRELAND 

Ireland enrolls over 700,000 children in its 
elementary schools, and is steadily advancing the 
quality of instruction, which in the past has not 
been of especially high grade. The percentage 
of pupils' attendance and the percentage of 
trained teachers have both been steadily rising. 
In secondary education, progress has been made 



132 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

during the past thirty years through the work 
of the Intermediate Board, appointed to effect 
the State organization of this grade of schools. 
Two important services are credited to this board. 
" It has practically, if not actually, called into 
being Catholic secondary education, and it has 
given an immense impetus to the intermediate 
education of girls." 1 In higher education, the 
University of Dublin is the oldest of several 
institutions. It is now entitled the National 
University of Ireland and has an enrollment, 
including women, of over 1000. 

1 Report of Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1910, p. 566. 



CHAPTER IX 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

"To do its best work for a child, schooling must be 
planned as part of the general scheme of his education; 
though education must not, conversely, be regarded as all a 
strict schooling. And everywhere, in all stages, at home and 
at school, education must be dominated by simplicity, thor- 
oughness, and serenity." — Allen, "Home, School, and 
Vacation," p. 24. 

The size and the importance, politically and 
educationally, of the four countries which we 
have thus far considered are such as to justify a 
much more extended description of their school 
structure than the limits of our present study 
have permitted. Although there are other na- 
tions which have worked out to a high degree of 
success the problems of education, we are obliged 
to consider them in even smaller compass. We 
shall outline the chief features in the school 
organism : first, of the other principal countries of 
Europe; second, of the more important depend- 
encies of England ; third, of the leading re- 
publics of America other than the United States; 

133 



134 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and fourth, of the two foremost oriental nations. 
Within each group the alphabetical order is 
followed. 

I. EUROPE 

Austria 

Infant Education. — Some 50,000 children be- 
tween the ages of four and six are in the kinder- 
garten. The first kindergarten was opened in 
1863, and this grade of school was recognized as 
a part of the educational system in 1872. 

Elementary education is given in the Volks- 
schulen, with a five-year course, followed by 
Burgherschulen with three years additional. 
Classes for the mentally deficient have been 
conducted since 1892. 

The secondary schools are modeled after the 
German and are grouped into Gymnasien and 
Realschulen, the former of eight years and 
the latter of seven, enrolling some 150,000 
students. 

Higher education is provided by eight univer- 
sities, the largest being Vienna, founded in 1365, 
and enrolling 9000 students. 

There is also a system of vocational schools, 



OTHER COUNTRIES 135 

both technical and commercial, of the three 
grades : continuation schools, middle schools, and 
higher schools. Of these last there are eight 
polytechnica and several professional schools. 

Belgium 

Infant Education. — Kindergartens have ex- 
isted since 1842. To-day, more than one quarter 
million children, between three and six, are en- 
rolled in these schools. 

Elementary schools are well organized, in 
accordance with the law of 1895, an d cover the 
ages seven to fourteen. 

Of secondary schools, private and public, there 
are twenty athenees royaux, seven colleges com- 
munatix, and eight colleges patronnes. 

Higher education is provided in four universi- 
ties, the largest being Liege, founded in 181 7. 
Women have been admitted to the universities 
since 1880. 

Vocational education is part of the general 
system. Belgium is "generally credited with 
having founded the first commercial institute of 
true university rank 1 " (Antwerp). There are 

1 Herrick, op. cit.^. 128. 



136 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

some dozen institutions of highest rank doing 
work along technical and professional lines. 

Denmark 

Elementary schools extend from six to eight 
years. 

The secondary schools were reorganized in 
1903, so that there are now Middle schools of 
four years, followed by two varieties of Gymnasia, 
a three-year Latin and a one-year Reale. Den- 
mark is characterized by a form of continuation 
school known as the Folkehoj skoler (People's 
High School), the first of which was established 
in 1844. There are now over seventy of these. 
They are not considered part of the State's 
system, but receive State aid. They charge a 
tuition fee covering board and lodging as well 
as instruction. They are designed for adults 
who have had an elementary schooling and desire 
advanced instruction, cultural and technical. 1 

The University of Copenhagen was founded 
in 1479, enrolls about 2,000 students, and since 
1875 has admitted women to all the faculties ex- 
cept theology. 

1 For an interesting account of these schools, see Chap. 17 in 
M. E. Sadler, op. cit. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 37 

Greece 

Elementary schools are of two grades: the 
Demotic, lower, of four years, and the Hellenic, 
higher, also of four years. 

The secondary schools are Gymnasia of six 
years. 

The National University is at Athens. It was 
founded in 1837, and its enrollment exceeds 
2500. There are government trade schools at 
Athens and Patras ; also the Polytechnicon Mez- 
zovin, devoted to painting, sculpture, and me- 
chanics. 

Hungary 

There are infant schools for children from three 
to six. 

The elementary schools are divided into three 
grades: (1) the elementary; (2) higher primary, 
diverging at about the sixth year to vocational 
courses of three years for boys and two years for 
girls; (3) burgher, connecting with the fourth 
elementary year, a six-year course for boys and 
four years for girls. 

Secondary education is provided by eight-year, 
coordinate Gymnasien and Realschulen, 



138 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

For higher education there are three universi- 
ties, one polytechnicum, agricultural schools, law 

academies, etc. 

Italy 

Infant education is provided in the asilo, for 
pupils from three to six, in which are enrolled 
some 400,000. The first kindergarten was 
established in 1850, and the kindergarten spirit 
dominates most of the asili. 

The elementary school is five years in length, 
divided into an inferior section of three years and 
a superior of two. 

Secondary schooling follows immediately upon 
the elementary course and consists first of the 
ginnasii, of five years, and then the licet, of 
three. Graduation from the licet admits to a uni- 
versity. Both grades together enroll about 50,000. 

The universities are famous, Bologna dating to 
1 1 19 and Padua to 1222. There are twenty-one 
in all, seventeen national and four free. Naples 
(founded 1224) has an enrollment of over 6000, 
and Rome (1303) of over 3000. Several of the 
universities, however, have no arts faculty. The 
course is four or five years, leading to degrees of 
doctor in medicine, law, etc. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 139 

Vocational education is given considerable 
attention, especially in higher grades. Of second- 
ary rank there are several scuole tecnice (technical 
institutes), having a four-years course, the first 
half of which is general, and the latter half spe- 
cialized into departments. Of higher grade are 
the superior institutes, — agriculture, veterinary 
medicine, social science, fine arts, etc., — a score 
or so in number. 

In the elementary schools coeducation prevails. 
Beyond that point, there is little provision for 
girls — "higher education is not in Italy as yet a 
popular question." 

Netherlands 

There are both public and private kindergartens, 
with a total of about 125,000 pupils. 

Elementary schooling is of six to eight years, 
with over one third of the pupils attending private 
institutions supported by the State. 

Secondary education is given in the higher 
burgher schools, in which a four-year course suc- 
ceeds the elementary, and in gymnasia of the 
German type. 

There are four universities, all nearly three 



140 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

hundred years old. Leyden is the oldest (1575), 
and the largest (1500 students). In 1880, the 
first woman student was enrolled in the university 
of Amsterdam, although the right to enter had 
never been formally denied to women. 

Norway 

Elementary schooling is urban and rural. The 
former gives in three divisions a total course of 
seven years, the latter gives only the two lower of 
these three divisions. Classes for the mentally 
deficient were established in 1892, and there are 
now ten auxiliary schools and eight reformatories. 

Secondary schooling is a continuation of the 
elementary and consists of two divisions, the 
middle schools of four years (admitting from 
the fifth elementary-school year), followed by the 
gymnasia, of three years. 

Higher education is provided by a single univer- 
sity at Christiania, founded in 181 1, and enrolling 
1500. It has a four-year course in all faculties 
except medicine, which extends two years further. 

Girls are now securing recognition in secondary 
schools. Women have been admitted to the uni- 
versity since 1882. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 141 

Portugal 

Infant schools of the maternal type enroll 
pupils from three to six years of age. 

The elementary course is of four years. 

The secondary school is a continuation of the 
elementary, and is of two kinds, the central lyc'ee, 
of seven years, and the national lycee, of five 
years. Either course prepares for the university. 

Higher education is provided in the University 
of Coimbra (1288), with 3000 students, and in 
several scientific and polytechnic academies. 

Russia 

Little attention is paid by the State to elemen- 
tary education, that being left to the church and 
private interests. 

There are a few kindergartens, some dating 
back a quarter century. 

The elementary schools are of two grades : the 
primary schools, a four-year course, and the district 
schools supplementing these. Some of the " town " 
schools, belonging to this supplementary grade, 
have a six-year course. 

Secondary schools are classical, — preparing for 
the university, — or Real. The full gymnasium 



142 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

course is eight years, but there are many pro- 
gymnasia, carrying only the first four years. In 
all, over 300,000 pupils are enrolled. 

There are nine universities. The oldest is 
Jurjew (formerly Dorpat), founded in 1632; and 
the largest are Moscow and St. Petersburg, each 
enrolling upward of 8000 students. 

Vocational schools parallel the regular schools, 
from artisan schools of elementary grade, training 
skilled workers in village industries, through 
technical schools of secondary rank, training skilled 
designers and mechanics, to numerous polytechni- 
cal and other higher grade institutes and schools. 

Where possible, girls are taught in separate 
classes ; in some cases, to accomplish this, the 
girls go to school half the day, and the boys go 
the other half. In 1870, the girls' gymnasia and 
progymnasia were made uniform with the boys' 
in government and program. In the universities, 
courses in many departments are conducted espe- 
cially for women. 

Spain 

The elementary and secondary school systems 
of Spain have been characterized as " excellent 
on paper but badly carried out." 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 43 

The secondary " institutions " prepare for the 
universities. 

The universities, ten in number, are centuries 
old, and well attended. Salamanca dates to 1243. 
Madrid (1508) is by far the largest, with an en- 
rollment exceeding 5000. 

Sweden 

Infant education is of the maternal rather 
than kindergarten type. There are over 5000 
infant schools, called Smaskolar, which prepare 
for the elementary grades. 

The elementary schools are the Volkskolar. 
The usual course is six years, with occasional 
continuation courses of one or two years. 

Secondary education is given in schools of 
several grades, viz.: (1) higher, or complete, of 
nine years; (2) lower, of from six to three years; 
(3) pedagogics, of less than three years. The 
pupils enter at nine years of age and are admitted 
to the university upon final examination from a 
complete school. 

The universities are four in number and are of 
the German type ; two are State and two private. 
The oldest and largest is Upsala, founded in 



144 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

1477, with an enrollment approaching 2000. A 
six- to eight-year course leads to the degree of 
licentiate in philosophy. 

There are three grades of technical schools: 
the lowest, in the form of continuation schools ; 
the elementary, for graduates of the Volkskolar ; 
and the high, both polytechnic and special. 
There are now more than thirty Folkhogskolar, 
people's high schools, first imported from 
Denmark {q.v.) in 1868, giving a course of 
" human and civic as well as scientific and 
practical education," to adults of eighteen 
years and over who have completed the elemen- 
tary course. 

Sweden is the home of manual training in- 
struction. A complete course of tool work for 
boys was formulated and by 1877 extended to 
the entire system of folk schools. The Sloyd 
Seminarium was established in 1874, at Naas, 
and has been the " backbone of the Swedish 
system." 

The elementary schools are commonly co- 
educational. Girls are not admitted to public 
secondary schools. Women have been admitted 
to the universities since 1870. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 145 

Switzerland 

Infant schools are chiefly urban, receive pupils 
from four to six years, and are kindergarten in 
spirit. They are, however, mostly under private 
auspices. 

Elementary education is provided in schools of 
two grades : primary, for pupils of from six to 
ten, and higher primary, or general continuation 
schools. Over 600,000 pupils receive elementary 
schooling. Classes for mentally deficient have 
been conducted since 1892. Auxiliary schools 
in 1907 numbered 7 for the blind, 15 for the 
deaf and dumb, 25 for the feeble minded, and 
37 reform schools. 

Secondary schools are of two types : the Se- 
kundar-Schulen, similar to the American high 
school, and the other modeled after the German 
Gymnasium. 

There are six universities, on the German pat- 
tern, with the four faculties complete in nearly 
all of them. The oldest is Basel, 1460; the 
largest is Berne with over 2000 students. 

Vocational. — Of elementary grade there are 
continuation schools, industrial, commercial, agri- 



146 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

cultural, and domestic science. Of secondary 
grade there are schools in very great variety, 
both general, industrial, and special trade schools. 
For graduates of these there is the magnificent 
Polytechnic at Zurich. 

Coeducation prevails throughout the elemen- 
tary grades and, with but few exceptions, in the 
secondary schools. Women have been admitted 
to the universities since 1868, and now constitute 
at least one quarter of the enrollment. 

II. ENGLISH DEPENDENCIES 

Australia 

School organization, while differing in details, 
has much in common throughout the States 
which make up the commonwealth. 

Infant schools, with a two-year course, are 
found in New South Wales and Western 
Australia. 

Elementary schools have five-year courses in 
South Australia, and six or seven in the other 
States. 

Secondary schools are high schools continuing 
the work of the elementary school with a course of 
three or four years. There are no State second- 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 47 

ary schools in South Australia or Western Aus- 
tralia. 

There are four universities, Adelaide, Mel- 
bourne, Sydney, and Hobart. Larger than any 
of these is the neighboring University of New 
Zealand. 

There are many technical schools of advanced 
grade, among them the School of Mines at Ade- 
laide and the Technical College at Sydney. Four 
of the states have established agricultural colleges. 

Canada 

With the exception of Quebec the various prov- 
inces of Canada have a similar school organiza- 
tion, of which Ontario 1 serves well as a type. 

The elementary school consists of four " forms " 
of two years each, with a continuation form of one 
or two years in some places. 

The secondary school is a " high school," follow- 
ing directly upon the elementary school, and 
leading in a four-year course to the university. 

Of the eight universities in the Dominion, 
Dalhousie, at Halifax, is the oldest (1818), and 
Toronto is the largest (over 2500 enrolled). 

1 For historical sketch see Herbert Thomas John Coleman, 
"Public Education in Upper Canada," New York, 1907. 



148 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

III. AMERICA 

Argentine 

Elementary schools consist of six grades of 
one year each. There is a school attendance of 
about 600,000. 

Secondary education is given in colegios, be- 
tween twenty and thirty in number, with a five- 
year course, chiefly for those intending to follow 
professional careers. Pupils enter at about the 
age of twelve. 

The universities are three in number : Cordoba, 
founded in 161 3; Buenos Ayres, with nearly 
3000 students ; and La Plata, recently established. 
They are national in government and support and 
resemble the French universities in organization. 

Vocational training receives some attention. 
There are two public industrial schools for boys, 
who enter with four years of elementary work and 
follow a six-years course, the last two years of 
which lead to a special trade. There are a few 
commercial schools of elementary grade, both day 
and evening, for men (four-years course) and for 
women (three-years course). 

Girls are admitted to the colegio on equal terms 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 49 

with boys, but the prevailing prejudice against 
coeducation prevents many girls from attending. 
There are two secondary schools, liceos, for women 
only. 

Bolivia 

By the law of 1895 elementary schooling is 
provided in three cycles : infant, of two grades ; 
elementary, of three grades ; and superior, of 
three grades. 

Secondary education is given in eight colleges, 
five clerical institutions, and five private lyceos, in 
all accommodating some 3000 students. The 
course is of six years and leads to the degree of 
Bachelor of Science or of Letters. Higher 
education is provided by seventeen institutions 
with 700 students. The course in law is five. 
years ; of medicine, seven years ; of pharmacy, 
four years ; of theology, four years. There are, 
too, schools of mines and of commerce and of 
industrial arts. 

Brazil 

Each" State has an independent system, but all 
follow a common pattern. 

The elementary schools have six-year courses 
with a supplementary two years. 



150 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Secondary schools have a seven-year course and 
lead into the higher schools. 

Higher education is provided by twenty-five 
special faculties, schools, institutes, etc. There 
are no true universities. 

Trade schools are already established in more 
than half of the States. 

Separate schools for girls are required. 

Chile 

The eleme7itary course is six years, given in 
schools one fifth of which are private. 

Secondary education has been characterized as 
the " best in South America." There are about 
forty liceos for boys and thirty for girls. Pupils 
enter at twelve years of age, and follow a pre- 
paratory course of two years and a humanities 
course of six years. 

The University of Chile (1743) has seven fac- 
ulties, with about 1000 students. There is also 
a prosperous Catholic University at Santiago. 

There are several commercial schools with ad- 
mission requirements the same as for the liceos; 
also a school of Mechanic Arts, at Santiago, 
and agricultural and technical schools. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 151 

Colombia 

In consequence of legislation of 1908 there 
has been a revival in interest in elementary 
schools, in which a quarter-million pupils are 
now enrolled. 

There are numerous secondary schools of 
the college type. 

There are four universities, at Bogota, Antio- 
quia, Popayan, and Cartagena. 

Ecuador 
Ecuador has a school enrollment of nearly 
100,000. There are over 1000 elementary, 35 
secondary, and 9 higher educational schools. 
The chief seat of learning is the University of 
Quito, with four faculties — law, science, medi- 
cine, and philosophy and letters. 

Mexico 

There is a well-planned system of elementary 
schools of six years, enrolling about 700,000 and 
some forty secondary schools of four or five years. 

The only higher institutions are professional 
in character, " institutes " or " schools " of medi- 
cine, engineering, agriculture, commerce, admin- 
istration, etc. 



152 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Uruguay 

Elementary education is being given rapidly- 
increasing attention. 

Secondary schools enroll about 3000 students. 

The University of Montevideo is at the head 
of the educational system, with faculties in law, 
medicine, arts, agriculture, mathematics, and so- 
cial sciences. 

Venezuela 

Elementary school enrollment is meager. 

There are 57 secondary schools and 54 national 
colleges. Of the latter, some have a two-year 
preparatory course, then four years leading to a 
bachelor's degree. 

Higher education centers in the University of 
Los Andes, at Merida, and the National Academy 
of Fine Arts, the School of Arts and Trades, and 
the Central University, all at Caracas. 

IV. ASIA 

China 
Prior to 1905 there was no system of ele- 
mentary education. In that year China began 
the foundations of a modern system based upon 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 53 

occidental models. 1 The imperial decree of 
September 3, 1905, abolished the historic system 
of State examinations and outlined a series of 
four grades of schools: (1) primary, of five years; 
(2) common, of four years; (3) middle, of five 
years ; and (4) provincial college, of two or more 
years. Overtopping all is the University of 
Peking, an imperial institution with a large pro- 
portion of western instruction. " China went 
into this great work of the education of a quarter 
of the population of the globe without proper 
prevision or provision." 2 Nevertheless, elemen- 
tary and secondary schools are magically spring- 
ing up throughout the Empire. In the province 
of Chefu there are a dozen middle schools and 
colleges at Tientsin, Shantung, and other centers. 

Japan 

Infant Education, — The first kindergarten was 

established in Tokyo, in 1876. Although there 

are some 40,000 children in kindergartens, these 

do not form part of the national educational 

1 For historical sketch, to 1902, see Robert E. Lewis, "The Edu- 
cational Conquest of the Far East," Revell, 1903. 

2 Charles F. Thvving, " Education in the Far East, 1 ' Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1909, p. 155. 



154 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

system. Says Professor Kikuchi : " The kinder- 
garten is still a question with us, some education- 
alists contending that it is prejudicial to the 
development of children, while others contend 
that there can be no such prejudice if it is prop- 
erly conducted." 1 

The elementary schools are of two grades : 
(i) the ordinary schools, taking children over six, 
and covering a six-year course; and (2) the higher 
schools with a course of two, occasionally three, 
years. The first school for the blind and the deaf 
and dumb was established in Kyoto, in 1878. 
To-day there are several of these institutions, both 
public and private. 

The secondary schools are of two grades, the 
middle schools and the higher schools. The 
middle schools follow the six years of elementary, 
and give a course of five years — a few add a year 
to this. The higher schools follow the middle 
school course and add three years, preparing for 
the university. 

The universities are two — Tokyo and Kyoto, 
both imperial, comprising several separate colleges 
with three- or four-year courses. There are also 

1 Dairoku Kikuchi, "Japanese Education, 1 ' London, 1909, p. 86. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 1 55 

post-graduate courses. Tokyo enrolls about 6000 
students. 

Vocational education is given much attention. 
There are many technical supplementary or 
apprentice schools, enrolling pupils who have 
completed the ordinary elementary curriculum. 
By far the greatest number of these specialize in 
agriculture, the others dealing with fisheries, com- 
merce, and technological subjects. Of secondary 
grade there are two groups, known as class A and 
B. In agriculture, these give to farmers a scientific 
and practical training in class A, and in class B a 
more elementary course of instruction. Techno- 
logical and commercial schools are similarly classi- 
fied. The courses are of three or four years, and 
the admission requirement is the completion of 
two years of the higher elementary or of the 
middle school. Vocational instruction of higher 
grade is given to graduates of the middle schools 
in three special colleges. (These are not to be 
confused with the colleges of the university, two 
in commerce and one in agriculture.) Over one 
quarter million students are enrolled in the voca- 
tional institutions of all grades. 

In the elementary schools coeducation is usual. 



156 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Beyond that point the education of boys and of girls 
becomes separate and distinct. There are high 
schools for girls, giving graduates of the ordinary 
schools a four-year course with supplementary 
courses of one or two years in some schools. Be- 
yond this there is no governmental provision for 
the higher education of women. There is one 
" so-called " women's university at Tokyo. 



CHAPTER X 

REVIEW 

" The inward life, the real life, the animating and formative 
life of a people is infinitely difficult to discern and understand." 
— Henry van Dyke, "The Spirit of America," p. 8. 

Before leaving this study of the organic struc- 
ture of the school systems of the world's nations, we 
shall do well to gather into more compact compass 
the salient features of each. Doing so, we shall be 
the better enabled to recognize their chief points 
of similarity and difference. The relation of the 
three broad grades of educational institutions, one 
to another, is best shown by means of graphic 
representation (pages 158, 159). Only the more 
important countries having distinctive educational 
systems, are considered, and in each case only the 
traditional types of schools are indicated ; that is, 
no reference is made to auxiliary, special, or voca- 
tional schools. Also it is to be noted that the 
schemes represent the normal or best conditions. 
For instance, the Germans consider that their 
Volksschule consists normally of eight years, and 

yet, as a matter of fact, a majority of these schools 

157 



158 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



APPROXIMATE AGE 2 3 4 
SCHOOL YEAR 



UNITED 
STATES 



GERMANY 



{Elementary! 
Secondary 
Higher < 

(Elementary^ 



Secondary* 
I Higher 



I Elementary^ 

FRANCES | 

J Secondary < 

I Higher 



f 

Elementary^ 



ENGLAND 



AUSTRIA <^ 



Secondary 
iHigher 

( ( 

Elementary^ 

Secondary 1 
Higher 



ITALY < 



( ( 

Elementary^ 

Secondary < 
Higher 



5 6 7 8*1 



c'nfa 



Pre >ara 



Elementary School 



12131 



Volkssch 



rogymnasium 



Provided' 

V. 



nentar/ school 



12 



High School 



Gymnasium 



algymnasium 



Lycee 



College 



Grammar 



Gymnasium 



Ginn 



9 2b 21 22 2!3 242& 



14 



16 



University 



Un versity 



17 



Un versity 



Post graduate 



REVIEW 



159 



APPROXIMATE AGE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526 
SCHOOL YEAR f |1 2 j 3 |4 5| 6 I 7 8| 9 |ldll|l213|l4]l5J16|l7'l8|l9l20 



{Elementary 
Secondary 
Higher 



SWEDEN 



JAPAN J 



(Elementary 

J Secondary 
(Higher 



Elementary < 
Secondary J 
Higher 



i Sc'hc 



Ordinary 



Compl 



School 



Mm 



University 



„HteFci 

Seoocdary 



University 



University Poat Gra< 



•n-t- 



do not carry the full number of grades. In this dia- 
gram, too, all infant education is included within the 
elementary group, and the school years are reckoned 
from the beginning of the elementary period. 

The most striking point of difference in these 
various systems is the relation of the elementary 
to the secondary schools. We may immediately 
group the systems into continuous and non- 
continuous, according to whether the pupils in 
the secondary schools normally enter by way of 
the elementary school, or whether the secondary 
school parallels the work of the lower grade school 
into some of the elementary school years. This 
is brought out by the following diagram : — 



i6o 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



APPROXIMATE AGE 
SCHOOL YEAR 



UNITED STATES 

ITALY 

PORTUGAL 

NORWAY 

CANADA 

ARGENTINE 

CHILE 

JAPAN 



germanV" 

FRANCE 
ENGLAND 
AUSTRIA 
SWEDEN 




SCHOOL YEAR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 111213141516 17181920 
APPROXIMATE AGE 6 7 8 9 10 111213141516171819 20212223242526 



KEY 



Elementary 



Secondary 



Higher With jagged edge = Indefinite Ijength 



REVIEW l6l 

Concerning the education of girls and women, 
we have seen that marked differences of policy 
characterize the various nations. In the elemen- 
tary schools Russia makes special effort to segre- 
gate, France and Germany maintain separate 
schools wherever possible; but in all the other 
countries coeducation is the general practice. As 
to schools of secondary grade : Sweden provides 
none for girls ; the United States, Switzerland, 
and a few other countries usually coeducate: 
Germany, France, England, Russia, Japan, 
and others are quite definitely committed to 
segregation. In the colleges and universities 
women are admitted practically on equal terms in 
the United States, France, Sweden, and Switzer- 
land ; they have gained substantial concessions in 
Germany, England, and Russia; in the other 
countries little or no provision is made for them. 

In at least four countries — United States, 
France, Russia, and Switzerland — women may 
get, under State auspices, a continuous education 
from the elementary school through the university. 
In most of the others, however, there is a hiatus 
between the secondary school and the university 
which must be supplied by private institutions. 



l62 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



The extent of this lapse is shown in the case of 
the leading countries : — 




SWEDEN 



JAPAN 



Even as we note in formal manner these points 
of similarity and contrast in school structure, we 
are impressed by the fact that to do so falls far 
short of telling the whole story. Nor could the 
shrewdest observer and most accurate reporter 
tell that story in a library of volumes. Our dia- 
grams and meager summaries are but the rough 
plans and specifications ; the architectural details, 
the finishing embellishments, and the encom- 
passing atmosphere defy complete description. 
No school system is the work of a day, neither 
can it be comprehended in a day ; certainly 
not by one who is foreign to the people 
who have evolved it. We step into a foreign 



REVIEW 163 

land, sojourn awhile, vaguely sense the national 
spirit and purpose, and then attempt in a few 
words to characterize its institutions. But our 
cleverest epigrams fail to do justice; indeed there 
is danger that, unwittingly, they inflict injustice. 

It is with some temerity then that we review 
the schools of the nations in terms of brief gener- 
alizations. 

Germany stands for order, precision, singleness 
of purpose, and certainty of accomplishment. 
Imperial strength and military, industrial, and 
commercial ascendancy are her utilitarian aims ; 
exact and exhaustive scholarship is her cultural 
ideal. The efficiency of her schools is only to be 
called in question when we challenge the validity 
of her caste system. It is a serious reflection that 
" there seems no adequate provision for the poor 
clever boy to pass from one school to another of a 
higher kind." 1 " Not one boy in 10,000 finds his 
way from the highest class of the elementary 
school into the Gymnasium." 2 However, forces 
within the empire are striving to remedy this de- 

1 William H. Winch, " Notes on German Schools," Longmans, 
Green, p. 13. 

2 Russell, op. cit., p. 135. 



164 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

feet, and the ultimate outcome must surely be a 
victory for democracy. 

In France, education is a national affair. It is 
recognized as a national interest, and hence the 
government assumes toward it entire responsibil- 
ity, and exercises over it a complete and detailed 
authority. This centralization is by no means con- 
fined to educational administration, but extends 
to all departments; the instinct for it seems in- 
grained in the national character. All nations 
need intelligent leaders and a trained citizenship. 
No one in the family of nations recognizes this 
need more keenly than France, who proposes to 
meet it systematically through her schools. Her 
schools seem fundamentally to rest upon the prize 
system ; the rewards to the individual for fidelity 
to the school requirements are industrial position 
and military and civic honor. If the system seem 
somewhat inconsistent with democratic tenets, we 
have but to recall that France is unique as a 
republic wherein deep-grounded monarchial ideas 
and ideals survive. Now that her school machine 
has been constructed, by the absolutism of a cen- 
tralized democracy, her next problem is so to 
operate that machine that the initiative and self- 



REVIEW 165 

expression of the individual are not stifled, but 
are permitted to expand to their full fruition. 
This problem nowhere is better realized than in 
the great Republic itself. 

We are told that " the history of education in 
England exhibits three characteristics of the 
national genius. The English temper is reverent 
of the past. Education had its beginning in the 
church; it must never be wholly lost to the 
church. ... In the second place, the national 
temper and government have long been aristo- 
cratic. ... In the third place, the national genius 
is prosaic and practical." 1 Hence we see con- 
servative England modifying conditions and 
abandoning traditions but slowly, and yet doing 
so with a certain heavy sureness. The chief char- 
acteristic of the school organization is its lack of 
organization. The individual is everything, pro- 
vided it is the individual in his proper place. Vested 
influences, social cleavages, individual rights, all 
are respected, and yet somehow England manages 
to provide effective schooling for her people — a 
schooling which, after all, seems to conserve those 
interests which the Englishman holds most dear. 

1 Hughes-Klemm, op. cit., p. 22. 



1 66 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The influence of these three distinctive peoples 
of the Old World is felt not only by their im- 
mediate neighbors, but by the nations of all the 
continents. Austria is, of course, markedly Ger- 
man ; to a lesser but yet to a considerable extent 
is the effect of German thought to be traced 
in the school systems of her other neighbors 
— Switzerland, Holland, Russia, and the Scan- 
dinavian triad. English ideas have been carried 
to her colonies, but in the journey across the 
seas have lost much of their subserviency to 
the forms of the past. The South American 
Republics, touched by the spirit of all three 
European nations and by that of the United 
States, are facing the dawn of an educational 
renaissance destined to transmute the native and 
Latin tempers into builders of organized world 
powers. 

In the Orient, China is shaking her bulky form 
after her sleep of centuries and opening her eyes 
to the possibility of applying occidental policies 
to the solution of her own peculiar problems. 
Japan has already for several decades been alive 
to western influence, and, with a healthy skepti- 
cism, has modified the results of her own genius 



REVIEW 167 

for organization, by the lesson she has learned 
abroad. 

Finally, what shall we say of our own country ? 
It has been said of us that "while we have no 
national system of schools we have a national 
program of education. To teach all subjects to 
all men in the same school — this is the great 
educational, social, and economic opportunity 
of America." 1 Chancellor Brown suggests that 
among our original contributions to education, 
the most important are these three : — 

" First, the nonsectarian elementary school for 
all classes of the community, answering to our 
democratic social organization and our religious 
liberty. 

" Secondly, the American high school, serving 
at once as a continuation of the elementary school 
and an introduction to the higher education, with 
courses meeting a variety of tastes and needs. 

" Thirdly, the American university, with its 
combination of instruction and research, of cul- 
tural and technological courses, and with liberal 
and professional departments often dovetailing 
into each other. To this might be added that 

1 Davenport, op. cit., p. 33. 



1 68 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

notable invention, that new development of per- 
sonal efficiency, the American university presi- 
dent." 1 

Lest we soothe ourselves with an unwarranted 
complacency, it may be well for us at this point 
to see ourselves as we are seen by other eyes. 
The educational commission sent by Germany to 
the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, after quietly in- 
vestigating the educational systems of the United 
States, did not hesitate to speak critically. They 
" declared that America is abundant in resources, 
filled with energy, exceedingly quick-witted and 
resourceful ; that a vigorous people is possessed 
of such mighty and largely undeveloped physical 
resources, and has such splendid advantage in 
coast lines and commercial situation, that un- 
doubtedly it will have to be reckoned with in the 
trade and commerce of the somewhat distant fu- 
ture; but that the United States is so seriously 
handicapped with manifest disadvantages, of which 
Americans are unconscious, that no American in- 
dustrial competition at any early day need be taken 
seriously by the German nation. They said these 
disadvantages make a buoyant confidence without 

1 Elmer E. Brown, op. cit., p. 129. 



REVIEW 169 

sufficient underpinning for it, a feeling of com- 
placent satisfaction with everything American, an 
expectation that, without much planning, and 
without much philosophical study, or concerted 
action, or definite plan, or cooperative efficiency, 
everything will come out all right whenever the 
need of it arises. They emphasized the entire 
absence of provision for public schools supplying 
systematic instruction in craftsmanship, and as- 
serted that this lack is sufficient to overcome any 
natural advantage in resources or geographical 
situation." 1 

We may seek to deflect the force of this criti- 
cism by replying that it is directed chiefly at our 
vocational education, and we may resent its terms 
as an exaggeration ; nevertheless there is sufficient 
truth in it to give us cause for reflection. We 
may take exception to the sweeping charge of 
"complacent satisfaction with everything Ameri- 
can," for certainly there is a decided tendency 
among us to discover the "best," whatever its 
source, and to secure it for our own. Indeed, 
this very desire, the constant expression of a 

1 Commissioner Draper, in Educational Department Bulletin, No. 
424, Albany, New York, p. 60. 



170 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

restless self-governing people, accounts for many of 
the apparent inconsistencies of our school organ- 
ization. We are always in the transition state from 
one experiment to the next. 1 Let us hope that 
some day we shall reach a condition of stable equi- 
librium without forfeiting the essential advantages 
which inhere in our national spirit of adventure. 

However faulty the foregoing summary of con- 
ditions, one thing is certain : the interest aroused 
by a nation's schools is by no means proportionate 
to its area or population. Switzerland, for in- 
stance, with her four millions of people, has been 
termed " the home of educational systems, in com- 
prehensiveness and precision scarcely inferior to 
that of Prussia itself." " Education is the greatest 
force in Switzerland ; ... it bulks largest in their 
legislation and demands their greatest sacrifices." 2 

1 " When a method or force has been long in use, the American 
community is in peril of becoming dissatisfied with it. Its very 
dominance may contribute to its unpopularity. The contrast in 
this respect between the American and the English community is 
wide and deep. The American community desires to change a 
thing because it has been in use so long ; the English desires to 
retain it simply by reason of its age." — Charles F. Thwing, "A 
History of Education in the United States since the Civil War," 
Houghton, Mifflin, 1910, p. 224. 

2 Hughes-Klemm, op. cit., p. 251. 



REVIEW 171 

Russia, with forty times the population, excites no 
such admiration for her educational organization 
as does this sturdy inland republic. The twenty 
million population of Spain is impressive as a 
statistical item, but from the educational stand- 
point it forfeits its rank when compared with the 
six millions of Holland or the five millions of 
Scotland. 

Nevertheless, after all is said of the national 
coefficients in education, the trend seems conclu- 
sively to be toward a certain uniformity of struc- 
ture, and we may subscribe to the prophecy 
of Chancellor Brown that "modern education, 
overpassing partisan and sectarian bounds, over- 
passing even local, national, and racial bounds, 
is fast coming to be in its main features the same 
throughout the world, and to constitute one domi- 
nant, world-wide human interest." 1 

1 Op. cit., p. 64. 



B. THE CURRICULUM 

Chapter XI. General View 

Chapter XII. Infant Education 

Chapter XIII. Elementary Education 

Chapter XIV. Secondary Education 

Chapter XV. Higher Education 

Chapter XVI. Vocational Education 



CHAPTER XI 

GENERAL VIEW 

" It is a truth, now become axiomatic, that the great fact in 
education during the past thirty years has been the discovery of 
the individual. The courses of study in kindergarten or uni- 
versity are not for general but for special use. To turn a 
phrase, it may be said that no longer is the student prepared 
for the college but the college for the student. " — Snow, "The 
College Curriculum," p. 174. 

Having completed a general study of the 
structure of the school systems of the leading 
nations of the world, we are prepared to consider 
the second of the three subtopics into which we 
have divided the broad subject of school organi- 
zation. Thus far we have contented ourselves 
with a passing view of the external form of the 
school structure. This structure is built in order 
that the national wealth in human individuals may 
be best utilized in promoting the nation's weal. 
The school is reared in order that the minds 
and souls of children, as raw material, may be 
converted into finished products of disciplined 
efficiency. We have now, turning our attention 

175 



176 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

from the edifice to the process which goes on 
within it, to inspect the mechanism which deter- 
mines the product. 

The three elements in the teaching act are, of 
course, the pupil, the teacher, and the thing taught. 
We speak highly of the " influence " of the teacher, 
and set a large value upon the teacher's " person- 
ality." At the same time, no school system is 
willing to permit the teacher to deal with his, 
pupils solely in accordance with his own judg- 
ment as to their intellectual and moral needs. 
Nor is it satisfied to define the teaching process 
in terms only of personality and influence, impor- 
tant as these factors are. It imposes upon teacher 
and pupil a set form and amount of subject 
matter which must be acquired by the pupil 
under the guidance and instruction of the teacher. 
True, it is the hope of the school that this acqui- 
sition may be made in a wholesome atmosphere, 
purified and clarified by the teacher's personality. 
Nevertheless, the curriculum itself is prescribed 
in more or less detail, and it is this curriculum 
which merits our present attention. 

The extent to which the State prescribes the 
curriculum naturally varies in the different coun- 



GENERAL VIEW 177 

tries. 1 Great Britain and most of her colonial 
possessions prescribe courses for elementary 
schools only ; Belgium, Norway, and Nether- 
lands prescribe for secondary schools and a 
minimum for elementary schools ; most of the 
other European nations exercise control over 
the curriculum for elementary, secondary, and 
normal schools — Japan, Mexico, Brazil, and 
Argentine also come in this class. In a majority 
of the States of the United States, prescription 
does not extend beyond a minimum for elemen- 
tary schools, while a large minority do not even 
go so far. 

That there should be differences too in the 
subject matter of the curricula of the various 
countries is a matter of course. The history and 
traditions of the nation, its geographic location 
and political status, its natural resources and 
acquired wealth — all shape the national purpose 
in reference to its schools. It is to be noted, 
however, that " without doubt, national differences 
must still be more influential in determining the 
teaching of the lower schools than that of the 

1 For interesting study, see Fred J. Brownscombe, " State Control 
of Courses of Study," Silver, Burdett, 1908. 



178 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

universities. In some degree this difference must 
be regarded as permanent. A strong nationalism 
and even a certain wholesome provincialism are 
to be cherished in those schools." 1 

There are three or four main points of distinc- 
tion around which differences in the curriculum 
center. These may gain clearness if put in the 
form of questions: (1) Shall the school cultivate 
the physical and moral as well as the mental ? 
(2) Shall the school educate for culture or train for 
vocation ? and as a corollary : In what proportion 
shall the classics and the sciences enter the cur- 
riculum ? (3) Shall the schools differentiate on 
behalf of individuals or groups of individuals ? 

The first question is answered quite diver- 
gently, as we shall see later. The second ques- 
tion touches alike educational psychology and 
the social status. Are culture and vocational ef- 
ficiency contradictory terms ? If so, the school 
must seek one or the other ; if not, it must mold 
its curriculum so as to secure efficiency through 
cultural subjects and culture through vocational 
subjects. In either case we are bound to recog- 
nize that certain subjects of study are more im- 

1 Brown, "Government by Influence," p. 117. 



GENERAL VIEW 1 79 

mediately available for utilitarian purposes and 
that certain others are chiefly of value as nourish- 
ing men's ideals and extending the range of their 
sympathies. One of the bitterest of the educa- 
tional contests of the past century — and one 
still raging — was over the point of the relative 
values of subjects, particularly as between the 
humanities and the sciences. The psychologists 
have appeared in this contest with their dispute 
as to mental discipline 1 and the consequent ques- 
tion as to whether grilling study in classical 
grammar will also make one a good scientist, 
or whether scientific training alone can possibly 
entitle one to be called " cultured." In its social 
aspects, the contest has been no less keen. The 
defenders of the status quo have endeavored to 
identify culture with the socially " elect " and 
limit its acquisition to those predestined to enjoy 
it. Meantime the Philistines have been waging 
war on the strongholds of the self-chosen and 
securing reluctant recognition. So important 

1 The bibliography is large. To cite but one volume of the more 
recent ones, W. H. Heck, " Mental Discipline and Educational 
Values," John Lane Co., 1909. He says (p. 45), "The doctrine 
of democracy in education and the doctrine of formal discipline 
cannot be well harmonized." 



l8o SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

has been this contest that it has affected not 
only the internal curriculum but the very struc- 
ture of the schools, as we have seen, for instance, 
in the three-sided secondary organization of 
Germany, in the four faculties in France, and in 
the vocational high schools in America. 

The third question — that as to the differen- 
tiation of courses — has a close relation to this 
second. Is there one continuous curriculum 
through which all children should be carried 
from the infant school to the university? It is 
clear that this question must promptly be 
answered in the negative. What, then, are to 
be the bases upon which we shall say : These chil- 
dren must have this curriculum ; those children 
must have //^/curriculum ? In the spirit of aristoc- 
racy and autocracy, these children are to be given 
every educational advantage that shall help them 
maintain their present social preeminence ; those 
children, being of a lower social class, are to 
be given an elementary education broad enough 
to train them so that they shall not become a 
charge upon the upper class, and narrow enough 
to prevent their breaking into the ranks of the 
cultured. In the spirit of the new democracy, 



GENERAL VIEW l8l 

these, the naturally favored, are to be given op- 
portunity to develop natural ability for the sake 
of the commonwealth; and those, less favored 
by social circumstance, are also to be given op- 
portunity to express themselves in terms of cul- 
ture, if the latent possibility is in any measure 
present. Hence we see conservative monarchies 
standing for rather inflexible courses of study, 
and experimenting democracies tending to a large 
freedom of election of studies. Just at what stage 
of the pupil's school life he is to be allowed op- 
tional studies is one of the points which will 
receive our attention as we proceed. We shall 
see that the inflexibility of the German elemen- 
tary and secondary curricula is succeeded in the 
university by an almost unlimited liberty of choice 
of subjects. By contrast, we shall see that in 
America, the idea of free election extends down- 
ward well into and through the collegiate and 
secondary curriculum. Recent years have pro- 
duced spirited argument over the question of 
elective courses in the colleges. 1 On the one 

1 It is not difficult, however, to trace a certain origin of the elec- 
tive system back to the year 1779 and to the College of William and 
Mary. — Charles F. Thwing, " A History of Higher Education in 
America," p. 312. 



182 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

side, we have the testimony of Dr. Eliot: " Now, 
the experience of forty years in a great variety of 
American institutions has proved that election 
by the individual works well, wherever the ad- 
ministrative methods which should accompany 
such an elective system have been well devised 
and well executed. Hence, the system is not 
only inevitable, but in the highest degree expe- 
dient and profitable." 1 Against this, we have to 
oppose the sentiment of Professor Ladd : ". . . 
my objection to making the entire college cur- 
riculum elective is the necessary sequence of 
the facts. The freshman in the best American 
college, irrespective of his age and his wisdom, 
whether in his own eyes or in the eyes of others, 
has not had (except in rare instances) a secondary 
education of sufficient extent or thoroughness to fit 
him to enjoy the privileges of the university idea." 2 
In all directions of human endeavor the prog- 
ress of thought results in instability of organi- 
zation. The school curriculum in every country 
is more or less in a state of flux. Hence it is 



1 Charles Eliot, " University Administration," Houghton, Mifflin, 
1908, p. 153. 

2 Op. cit., p. 17. 



GENERAL VIEW 1 83 

possible to class, as does Superintendent Chan- 
cellor, "all of the studies of the so-called public 
school curriculum, from the kindergarten to the 
high school, under three heads, viz. : — I. The 
outgoing studies; II. The modern studies; and 
III. The incoming studies." 1 We shall keep 
this in mind as we proceed to our detailed con- 
sideration of the course of study in the succeeding 
steps of the educational ladder, yet the compass 
of our work will necessitate relegating history and 
prophecy to the background and studying, in the 
main, the conditions of to-day. We shall profit, 
however, if, at this point, we borrow from Dean 
Talbot her statement of the trend. " The special 
aims of public school education as they are be- 
ginning to manifest themselves follow a few gen- 
eral lines : — 

" 1. A development of the sense of citizen- 
ship. 

"2. A knowledge of the conditions which 
prevail in modern life and power to share in 
them. 

1 William E. Chancellor, " Our Schools — Their Administration 
and Supervision," Heath, 1905, p. 275. See entire chapter on "The 
New Education and the Course of Study," for elaboration of 
this thought. 



1 84 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

" 3. Provision for the welfare of individual 
boys and girls, rather than inviolability of the 
curriculum. 

" 4. Recognition of the fact that domestic 
duties or industrial activities await a large ma- 
jority of the girls. 

" 5. The imperative necessity of reaching the 
children whose wants the older curriculum did 
not satisfy. 

"6. Appreciation of the value of interest as 
paramount to that of subject matter in deter- 
mining the importance of a subject. 

" 7. The promotion of normal physical de- 
velopment." x 

1 Marion Talbot, " The Education of Women," University of 
Chicago Press, 1910, p. 147. 



CHAPTER XII 

INFANT EDUCATION 

" The kindergarten is the attempted embodiment of a few 
great educational ideas. The imperfect apprehension of any 
one of these ideas enfeebles its practice ; the false apprehen- 
sion of any one of these ideas distorts its practice. Moreover, 
the inadequately or falsely apprehended idea is betrayed into 
strange alliances, and thereby undergoes a radical change 
which is reflected in every detail of practical work." — Blow, 
"Educational Issues in the Kindergarten," p. i. 

We have seen that infant schools fall into two 
large groups, according to whether they are re- 
garded as preparatory to the elementary schools 
or as "children's gardens." France, England, 
and Italy are conspicuous supporters of the 
former group ; Austria, Belgium, and the United 
States, of the latter; while Germany so far has 
declined to incorporate any form of infant school 
in her official system. Naturally, when this grade 
of school is looked upon as a necessary asylum 
for children who otherwise would be left without 
supervision either in the home or in school, the 
curriculum takes a form quite different from that 

185 



1 86 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of the kindergarten with its distinctive cultural 
philosophy. Not only in Italy, where the school 
is termed the asilo, but also in France, where 
prior to 1881 it was generally known as a salle 
dasile, is this thought of shelter uppermost. As 
a social obligation the children must be housed 
and taken care of, and while they are thus gath- 
ered together it is a matter of economy to give 
them the educational rudiments. Hence we find 
the infant school in the countries of this group 
practically performing the work of the American 
or German elementary-school first year. 

The curriculum of the French ecoles maternelles 
includes moral instruction, study of animals and 
plants, drawing, writing, reading, language, de- 
scriptive geography, arithmetic, manual train- 
ing, singing, games, and gymnastics. This all 
"appears rather difficult for small children, but 
the method of using the program relieves it of 
its apparent frightfulness. No lesson is more 
than twenty minutes long, and stringent care is 
required to avoid mental fatigue." l Games, play, 
singing, and stories are so interwoven with more 

1 Bruce Ryburn Payne, " Public Elementary School Curricula," 
Silver, Burdett, 1905, p. 160. 



INFANT EDUCATION 1 87 

serious work as to deprive the program of its 
terrors. Yet, having the pupils for from one to 
three years, the school is able to lay the founda- 
tions of an elementary school training. Dr. 
Farrington speaks * of hearing the following ex- 
ample given to the third class in a high grade 
ecole niatemelle : A man spends 45 fr. per 
month for rent, 92 fr. for food, and 32 fr. for 
clothes. Supposing he saves 31 fr., how much 
does he earn ? 

In England, too, we find the same successful 
attempt to provide an infant-school curriculum 
which shall lead directly into the elementary 
school. Reading, writing, and arithmetic form 
the staples, with elementary nature study, sing- 
ing, and gymnastics added thereto. In addition, 
drawing is provided for the boys and needle- 
work for the girls. With two to four years 
under this curriculum it is not surprising that the 
pupils pass readily into what would correspond to 
the American second-year grade. 

If, as has been said, the French maternal 



1 Frederic Ernest Farrington, " The Public Primary School Sys- 
tem of France," New York, 1906, p. 77. See also p. 78 for extracts 
from " The Day of a Teacher in an Ecole Maternelle in Paris." 



1 88 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

school is the transition from the home to the 
school, we must say of the kindergarten, as 
usually found in the United States, that it is the 
transition from the home to the school building. 
Even where the kindergarten is an integral part 
of the public school system, pupils enter the 
first year of the elementary school either directly 
from home or after a term or two in the kinder- 
garten. Apparently the kindergarten is in no 
way a necessary preliminary to the elementary 
school. It does not keep the child throughout 
a long school day, as is the case abroad, three 
hours being the average daily session. The 
curriculum frankly disclaims preparation in the 
conventional fundamentals of the common school, 
and yet in the largest sense its training is in- 
tended to broaden the life of the child through- 
out all his subsequent school years. 

In order to make clear the difference between 
the curriculum of the infant school, aimed to 
prepare, in a more or less pleasant way, in the 
fundamentals, and that of the kindergarten, it 
is necessary to sketch, at least briefly, the essen- 
tials of the Froebelian philosophy and method. 
The kindergarten aims first of all to develop 



INFANT EDUCATION 1 89 

ideals. The gathering of children together 
creates a social microcosm which is to be so 
manipulated that it shall exert an educational 
influence upon the individual. An atmosphere 
is developed in which the child shall grow har- 
moniously as an individual and as a member 
of society. The " field is his schoolroom," and 
he is brought into sympathetic touch with nature. 
Spiritual things are sensed largely through the 
symbolism which permeates the activities of the 
class. 

The curriculum is built by the use of three 
teaching " tools " — songs and games, gifts, and 
occupations. 

(1) The songs and games, intimately connected 
one with the other, are based upon Froebel's 
" Die Mutter und Kose-Lieder" called by the 
faithful the kindergarten Bible. The fifty or 
more games 1 which it contains are frequently, 
in practice, supplemented by others developed 
by individual kindergartners for their local needs. 
Each of these games "illustrates a typical phase 

1 To be found in Susan E. Blow, " The Songs and Music of 
Froebers Mother-Play," Appleton. See also, Maria Kraus-Boelte- 
John Kraus, "The Kindergarten Guide," E. Steiger and Co., 1882. 



190 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of the child's development." They may be 
grouped into (1) those related to nature, as The 
Flower Basket, The Fish in the Brook; (2) those 
based on family relationships, as The Greeting, 
The Family ; (3) those suggestive of trades 
and occupations, as The Little Gardener, The 
Wheelwright; (4) those descriptive, as The 
Bridge, Hide and Seek ; and (5) songs of the 
senses, as Taste Song, Numbering the Fingers. 
Especial significance is given to the songs by 
imitation and dramatization. 

(2) The so-called gifts to the child were 
worked out by Froebel to lead up to the occu- 
pations. " Their chief connection lies in the fact 
that impression made through the gifts is con- 
verted into expression in the occupations." The 
gifts are ten in number, as follows : — 

First: Soft, woolen balls in the six spectrum 
colors, with strings attached for use in various 
motions. The ball " is the simplest shape and 
the one from which all others may subsequently 
be derived." 

Second : Wooden sphere, cube, and cylinder, 
two inches in diameter, " with rods and standards 
for revolution." The mediation of opposites is 



INFANT EDUCATION 191 

a law " lying at the very root of Froebel's system." 
The child whirls the cube rapidly and sees the 
cylinder evolve, and from the whirling cylinder 
he gets the sphere. 

Third : A two-inch wooden cube divided into 
eight one-inch cubes. 

Fourth: A two-inch cube divided "once verti- 
cally, and three times horizontally, giving eight 
parallelopipeds or bricks, each two inches long, 
one inch wide, one half inch thick." 

Fifth: A three-inch cube, divided into thirds 
in each dimension, making 27 one-inch cubes, of 
which three are divided diagonally into halves, 
and three, by two diagonals, into quarters. 

Sixth: A three-inch cube cut into 36 pieces, 
variously rectangular parallelopipeds or bricks, 
blocks, square prisms, and columns. 

Seventh : Colored tablets derived from the 
solids of the previous gifts — rectangles, squares, 
etc. 

Eighth : Wooden sticks of various lengths, 
plain or dyed in primary colors, illustrating the 
edge or straight line. 

Ninth: Wire rings, entire, halves, and quarters, 
illustrating the curved line. 



192 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Tenth : Various objects, beans, lentils, pebbles, 
shells, seeds, etc., illustrating the point. 

Of these ten gifts, the first introduces form, 
color, and the idea of unity, and the second, num- 
ber and arithmetic processes (in faces, bases, 
edges, etc.) and variety. The next four are the 
" building gifts," arranged, it will be noticed, in 
order of increasing difficulty of manipulation. 
Only the first six are taken up in their numbered 
order, the last four being introduced as supple- 
mentary to, and in connection with, the others. 

The children do not play aimlessly with the 
gifts, but are guided by the teacher, at first imitat- 
ing and eventually exercising considerable origi- 
nality in design. Three classes of forms are 
produced : (1) life forms, as seen in the daily life of 
the child — a table, a bed, a house, a bridge, etc. ; 
(2) beauty forms, in arrangements of blocks, etc.; 
and (3) mathematical forms, demonstrating the 
elementary principles of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and fractions. 

(3) The occupations reverse the progress of 
the gifts, traveling from the point back to the 
solid. In order, they are: perforating, sewing, 
drawing, slat interlacing, weaving, cutting, fold- 



INFANT EDUCATION 1 93 

ing, frame making (uniting wires by points rep- 
resented by peas), modeling. Practice does not, 
however, necessarily follow this logical order, but 
correlates the occupations more closely with the 
gifts. 

A typical day's program is : — 

Circle (of pupils) Prayer 

Talk on subject of day, 
or story 

Song 
Marching or Rhythm 
Gift 
Game 
Occupation 
Circle 

How much symbolism enters into the work of 
the kindergarten is instanced by the constant use 
of the circular arrangement for all group activi- 
ties, because the circle is the " symbol of unity." 



CHAPTER XIII 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



" It is an axiom in my mind, that our liberty can never be 
safe but in the hands of the people themselves, and that, too, 
of the people with a certain degree of instruction. This it is 
the business of the State to effect, and on a general plan." — 
Jefferson : in a letter to Washington, January 4, 1786. 

UNITED STATES 

In the United States, just as there is no cen- 
tral control of education, so there is no standard- 
ized course of study for elementary schools — nor 
for the schools of any grade. A few of the States 
have prescribed minimum courses or offered sug- 
gestive courses. New York, for instance, has 
prepared a syllabus, which is introduced by the 
following explanatory statement : — 

" In determining the work of the elementary 
schools, a six-year course has been prepared. 
This course is general in character and adapted 
to all children until that period of their develop- 
ment when they manifest different interests, men- 
tal powers, and tastes, which is usually at the age 

of twelve. 

194 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 95 

" This six-year course is followed by an inter- 
mediate course of two years, covering the usual 
seventh and eighth grades and rounding out the 
elementary course. In this two-year course the 
work begins to differentiate. Work is planned 
which leads to the long-established high school 
courses, to commercial courses, and to industrial 
courses. Certain work previously done in the 
high school course has been brought down in 
this two-year course to economize the pupils' 
time, to reduce the pressure and strain under 
which high school students have labored during 
their first years in high school, and to interest 
pupils in work which will induce them to remain 
in school for a greater number of years. 

" There are therefore the following courses : — 
I. Six-year elementary course. 

II. Intermediate course — seventh and eighth 
years." 1 

Most of the States, however, content them- 
selves with legislating only as to certain features 
of the curriculum. For example, all of the States 
prescribe the study of physiology and hygiene, 
with special reference to the effects of alcohol 

1 Education Department Bulletin, May 15, 1910. 



196 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and narcotics, 1 California prescribes " morals and 
manners," Illinois and New Hampshire " moral 
and humane education," Arkansas and others 
elementary agriculture, and so on. 

In the urban schools each city usually is a law 
unto itself. Each prescribes for its own needs, 
usually in minute detail by means of syllabuses 
explanatory of its course of study. The time al- 
lotments for a few of the leading cities are here 
given : — 

NEW YORK 
Explanations and Directions 

Manual Training. — Drawing, constructive work, cord and raffia 
work are prescribed for boys and girls ; shop work for boys alone ; 
sewing and cooking for girls alone. In the third year the boys take 
cord and raffia work for 60 minutes each week. In the 3 A grade 
the girls take cord and raffia work for 30 minutes, but in the 3 B 
grade they omit work in this line, devoting 60 minutes to sewing. 
During the fourth, fifth, and sixth years, the time allowed to sewing 
for girls is used by boys in constructive work. In the seventh and 
eighth years advanced sewing is taken by girls in schools not pro- 
vided with kitchens, but the time in this case may be one hour in- 
stead of 80 minutes. 

Study Periods. — At least 30 minutes per day from the fourth to 
the eighth year, inclusive, should be devoted to study. Principals 

1 " The value of this is questioned by many if not by a majority of 
those engaged in teaching, and the regulations in many cases verge 
perilously upon the ridiculous, as viewed from the standpoint of 
the schoolroom. They bear much stronger testimony to the zeal 
than to the common sense of the good people behind the move- 
ment.'" — Brownscombe, op. cit. y p. 51. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



IQ7 



should see that the time specifically given to subjects that require prep- 
aration should not be used exclusively for recitation purposes, but that 
it should be used also, as occasion may require, for purposes of study. 

Electives. — The study to be pursued in any one school shall be 
determined by the Board of Superintendents. Any regular subject 
in the curriculum may be substituted for any elective at the discre- 
tion of the Board of Superintendents. 

The figures in parentheses in the seventh and eighth years repre- 
sent the number of forty-minute periods per week. 

Minutes per Week 



Years 



Opening Exercises .... 

Physical Training, Physiology 
and Hygiene, Recesses and 
Organized Games .... 

English 

Penmanship 

Electives (German, French, 
Spanish) 

Geography 

History 

Mathematics 

Nature Study 

Science 

Drawing and Constructive 
Work 

Cord and Raffia 

Sewing 

Shop Work, Cooking or Ad- 
vanced Sewing 

Music 

Study and Unassigned Time . 



75 



45o 
4So 
100 



"5 
90 



120 
30 



60 



1500 



75 



165 
5io 
125 



150 
90 



120 
30 



60 
175 



1500 



III 



75 



165 
45o 
125 



150 

90 



120 
3° 
30 



60 
205 



1500 



IV 



75 



150 

375 
75 



135 



150 

90 



120 

60 



60 
210 



1500 



75 



90 
375 

75 



120 

90 

150 

75 



120 

60 



60 
210 



1500 



VI 



75 



90 
375 

75 



120 
120 
200 



60 



60 

205 



1500 



VII 



75 



90 
(9) 360 



(3) 120 
(3) 120 
(5)200 

(2) 80 

(2) 80 



(2) 80 

60 

235 



1500 



VIII 



75 



90 
(8) 320 



(5)200 

1 

(3) 120 

(5)200 

(2) 80 
(2) 80 



(2) 80 

60 
195 



1500 



1 In schools having a foreign language as an elective the study of geography 
in the eighth year is optional ; if studied, 80 minutes for the study should be 
taken from the unassigned time. In schools not having a foreign language 120 
minutes for the study should be taken from the 200 minutes apportioned to an 
elective. 



1 98 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



CHICAGO 



Grades 



I 1 



II* 



III 2 



IV 2 



VI 



VII 



VIII 



Opening Exercises . 
English . . . . 
History and Civics . 
Mathematics . . . 
Chicago Course . . 
Geography . . . 
Nature Study . . 

Music 

Art 

Industrial Arts . . 
Penmanship . . . 
Physical Education 
Recesses . . . . 

Study 

General Use . . . 
Total . . . 



5o 
795 



50 
645 

150 



75 

75 

5° 

150 

50 
100 
125 



75 

75 

50 

150 

50 
100 
125 



30 
1500 



30 



50 
595 

200 



50 

375 
5 

250 



30 
330 

60 
150 



30 
300 

60 
150 



75 

75 

50 

150 

75 

75 

125 



200 
60 

75 

50 

150 

75 

60 

125 



30 



30 



150 
60 
90 
90 

150 

75 

60 

125 

100 

30 



30 
300 

150 
150 



150 

60 

90 

90 
180 

75 

60 
125 
ioojioo 

30 90 



150' 

60 
90 
90 
180 

75 

60 

125 



30 
300 

50 

50 3 
I JO* 

DO 
90 
90 

;2o 

75 
60 

[25 

[OO 

[50 



1500 



1500,1500 1500,1500 



German 



500 1500 
J Pupils whose parents so desire may substitute 
1 German for Art and Nature Study. 
Physiology and Hy- f Substituted in place of Nature Study from the 

giene . . . \ middle of November to the end of January. 
Humaneness . . I Tau S ht in Opening Exercises, English, History 
1 and Civics, Nature Study, and Music. 



1 Three classes in a division. 2 Two classes in a division. 

3 First half year (semester) of the grade. 

4 Second half year (semester) of the grade. 
6 Included in period for English. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



199 



PHILADELPHIA 
A Suggested Allotment of Time for Elementary Grades 



grades 



Opening Exercises . . 

Recess 

Physical Culture . . 

Drawing 

Music 

Sewing 

Arithmetic . . . . 

Language 

Spelling and Dictation 

Reading 

Penmanship . . . . 
Geography . . . . 

History 

Physiology . . . . 
Unassigned Time . . 



Note i : — 

Drawing, Music, Sewing 
Note 2 : — 

Physical Training and 

Play 

Note 3 : — 

Language Group, in- 
cluding Penmanship . 



60 
150 

60 
105 

60 



150 
190 
60 
400 
100 



165 



1500 



165 



210 



750 



60 
150 

60 
105 

60 



200 

190 

60 

350 

100 



165 



1500 



:6 5 



700 



3 



60 
150 

60 
105 

60 

60 
200 
190 

60 
200 

75 
120 



160 



1500 



225 



525 



60 

150 
60 

105 
60 
60 

200 

190 
60 

200 

75 

120 



160 



500 



225 



525 



60 

75 
60 

105 
60 
60 

225 

190 
60 

100 

50 
120 
120 

75 
140 



500 



225 



135 



400 



60 

75 

60 

105 

60 

60 

225 

190 

60 

100 

50 
120 
120 

75 
140 



1500 



225 



135 



400 



60 

75 
60 

105 
60 
60 

225 

190 
60 

100 

50 
120 
120 

75 
140 



1500 



225 



[ 35 



400 



8 
60 

75 
60 

105 
60 
60 

225 

190 
60 

100 

50 
120 
120 

75 
140 

1500 



225 



135 



400 



Note. — Cooking 150 minutes per week is not counted. The time for this 
subject is to be taken from the other subjects of the sixth grade. 



200 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



BOSTON 



Year 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Arithmetic 


25 


210 


2IO 


270 


270 


230 


2IO 


2IO 


Drawing 


100 


95 


90 


90 


90 


90 


90 


90 


Elementary Science . . 


30 


30 


30 


45 


45 


45 


45 


DO 


Geography 


— 


— 


— 


150 


150 


150 


150 


90 


History 


— 


— 


s- 


30 


30 


120 


120 


I50 


Manual Training or House- 


















hold Science and Arts . 


— 


30 


30 


120 


120 


120 


120 


120 


Music 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


DO 


Opening Exercises . . . 


60 


60 


60 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


Physical Training . . . 


60 


90 


90 


80 


80 


80 


80 


80 


Physiology and Hygiene . 


— 


— 


30 


30 


30 


30 


60 


60 


Recesses 


200 


200 


200 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


Reading and Literature . 


735 


480 


455 


190 


190 


165 


150 


*95 


Spoken and Written English 


230 


245 


245 


305 


305 


280 


285 


255 


Total 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 



MILWAUKEE 



GRADES 


l 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8B 


81 


Reading .... 


450 


400 


300 


250 


200 


175 


IOO 


IOO 


IOO 


Language .... 


100 


100 


125 


125 


150 


150 


200 


200 


225 


Spelling .... 


100 


100 


IOO 


100 


100 


IOO 


50 


50 


50 


Writing 


75 


100 


IOO 


IOO 


IOO 


60 


40 


20 


20 


Arithmetic .... 


75 


100 


150 


175 


175 


200 


200 


200 


225 


Geography .... 


— 


— 


50 


60 


90 


120 


120 


I40 


— 


History of the U. S. 














125 


125 


200 


Drawing .... 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


Music 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


75 


7S 


German 


150 


150 


150 


175 


175 


175 


175 


175 


175 


Manual Training . . 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


90 


90 


90 


Calisthenics . . . 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


50 


5° 


50 


Opening and General 


125 


125 


125 


125 


125 


125 


125 


125 


125 


Special Help . . . 


— 


150 


150 


150 


150 


150 


150 


150 


150 


Recess 


150 


150 


125 


125 


125 


125 


75 


75 


75 


Optional .... 


J 5 


15 


15 


5 


— 


10 


— 


— 


15 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



201 



LOUISVILLE 



Opening Exercises .... 
Reading and Literature . . . 

Spelling 

Grammar 

Language 

Composition 

Conduct and Morals . . . 

Nature Studies 

History and Civil Govern- 
ment 

Geography 

Arithmetic 

Drawing and Industrial Work 

Music 

Writing 

Physical Culture, Physiology 

and Hygiene 

Recesses 

Total 



25 

500 



75 
100 

5° 
50 

50 
100 



1050 



II HI IV 



25 
500 
100 



200 
100 

75 
100 

5o 
150 



1500 



25 
425 
100 

225 



250 
100 

75 
100 

5o 
150 



1500 



25 
335 
100 

150 



175 
250 
100 

75 
90 

50 

150 



1500 



25 

220 

75 



75 



220 

250 

90 

75 
70 

5o 
150 



1500 



VI VII VIII 



25 
155 

75 



I5o 
75 



125 

210 

250 

90 

75 
70 

5o 

1500 



25 
150 

75 
150 

135 
60 

150 

200 

240 

90 

75 



150 



1500 



25 
150 

75 
150 

135 

75 

150 

185 

240 

90 

75 



150 



1500 



For the First Grade the subjects Reading and Language are 
to be taken as one. 

For the first four years the Language Work is to include the 
four topics immediately following Language. After the fourth 
year the time allotment is given to each subject. The topic 
" Conduct and Morals " is to be included in the time allotment 
for the Constructive Work and Composition. 

More time to be given to Industrial Work than Drawing in 
the first four grades. 

The programs given are sufficient in number to 
show that different cities place the emphasis upon 
different subjects. This is more clearly brought 
out by grouping the figures for the chief subjects 
in the six cities into the following table ;.— 



202 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Total of Weekly Time in Minutes for the Eight Years, 
Specifically Assigned to 





Eng- 
lish 1 


Mathe- 
matics 


Geog- 
raphy 


His- 
tory 


Sci- 
ence 


Draw- 
ing 


Con- 
struc- 
tion 
Work 


Music 


New York . 
Chicago . . 
Boston . 
Philadelphia 
Milwaukee . 
Louisville . 


3790 
4190 
4710 
4IOO 
4432 
5090 


1325 
1 125 

1635 
1650 
1288 

1755 


495 
650 
690 
720 
510 
990 


450 
420 
450 
480 
288 
425 


595 
330 

285 


880 
560 

735 

840 
600 
760 


460 
1230 
660 
360 
540 


480 
660 
480 
480 
600 

575 



1 Includes Reading, Literature, Grammar, Spelling, Composition, and Pen- 
manship. 

The 1910-1911 schedule for the city of Cleveland 
(p. 203) is of particular interest in consequence of 
the fact that it " is based upon the average time given 
to each study in each grade of the schools of the 
following cities: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
Rochester, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. 
Louis, Chicago, Milwaukee, and San Francisco." 

This shows weekly totals as follows : — 

English 5415 

Mathematics 1685 

Geography 785 

History 460 

Drawing 660 

Construction Work 520 

Music 650 

The programs of two cities having nine-year 
courses are given to illustrate the use made of 
the additional year (pp. 204, 205). 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



203 



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204 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



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N 

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ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



205 



& 



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UN O 

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ON 


UN O 


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ro 




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$■ 





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O 


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UN 

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t^ 00 





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MD 


un 


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206 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Literature is included in both reading and language in 
grades below the fifth. In Grade V and above, time for 
literature is included in the reading. 

Grade I. — Teachers may take ten minutes of unassigned 
time for arithmetic. Drawing four times per week. On the 
fifth day give extra time to reading, language, and literature. 

Grade II. — Teachers may increase time daily for language 
and literature by taking from unassigned time. On the day 
when there is no drawing, increase time for spelling. 

Grade IV. — Drawing, two forty-minute periods. On the 
days (two successive) when there are drawing periods, alternate 
history and geography. On the days (three successive) when 
there are no drawing periods, give at least twenty minutes each 
to history and geography. On these same days, extra time 
should be given to drill in arithmetic tables and rapid calcula- 
tion. 

In 1905, Dr. Payne made a study of elementary 
curricula, 1 in which he compared the schedules of 
ten typical American cities, setting forth the aver- 
age time, in minutes per week, given to each sub- 
ject. The resulting table may thus be considered 
a " composite " of the conditions prevailing at that 
date. 

1 Bruce Ryburn Payne, op. cit., 1905. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



207 



Grade 



Opening Exercises .... 

Reading and Literature . . . 

Writing 

Spelling 

Grammar, Language, and 
Composition 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

History and Civil Government 

Elementary Science and Na- 
ture Study 

Physiology 

Physical Training 

Drawing 

Music 

Manual Training 

Total Assignments . . 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


43 


43 


43 


40 


40 


40 


40 


443 


404 


367 


373 


232 


160 


142 


80 


78 


9i 


79 


62 


62 


28 


47 


90 


81 


73 


67 


62 


44 


130 


146 


144 


158 


176 


224 


254 


161 


195 


232 


239 


241 


249 


242 


11 


20 


53 


156 


164 


150 


127 


5 


5 


5 


17 


41 


171 


152 


35 


35 


34 


46 


51 


44 


58 


7 


7 


8 


8 


13 


13 


8 


52 


49 


5o 


49 


42 


37 


37 


75 


85 


88 


82 


86 


92 


78 


67 


7i 


68 


68 


67 


67 


64 


16 
1 174 


18 


19 


33 


3° 


30 


5o 


1250 


1285 


1401 


1313 


1404 


1327 



VIII 

40 

129 

22 

33 

256 

231 

81 

160 

49 
8 

37 
77 
64 
5o 
1245 



GERMANY 

In Germany, the elementary curriculum is pre- 
scribed in all its essential features by the State gov- 
ernments. Thus the Prussian requirement is: — 



Grade 



Religion , 

Language 

Arithmetic 

Geography, History, and Ob- 
ject Lessons 

Gymnastics 

Drawing 

Singing 

Handwork for Girls . . . . 

Geometry 

Total 



240 
660 
240 



60 

(120) 



1320 



240 
660 
240 



60 
(120) 



III 



240 
480 
240 

360 
120 
120 
120 
(120) 



1320 1680 



IV 



240 
480 
240 

360 
120 
120 
120 
(120) 



1680 



240 
480 
240 

360 
120 
120 
120 
(120) 



1680 



VI 



240 
480 
240 

360 
120 
120 
120 

(120) 

120 



1800 



VII 



240 
480 
240 

360 
120 
120 

120 

(120) 

120 



1800 



VIII 



240 
480 
240 

360 

120 
120 
120 

(120) 

120 



1800 



2o8 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Dr. Payne's composite table for ten typical 
German cities throughout the empire is : — 



Grade 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Religion .... 


172 


199 


207 


234 


246 


246 


234 


218 


Language . 








588 


603 


600 


567 


513 


5oi 


&Z 


472 


Arithmetic. 








252 


282 


282 


282 


270 


270 


270 


255 


Geography 








5« 


47 


"3 


"5 


ill 


in 


134 


147 


History . . 








— 


— 


33 


60 


103 


103 


no 


120 


Nature Study 








— 


— 


80 


66 


100 


140 


126 


in 


Gymnastics 








54 


36 


60 


108 


132 


132 


132 


125 


Drawing . 








12 


42 


54 


60 


120 


114 


137 


128 


Singing . . 








54 


54 


93 


99 


93 


93 


99 


90 


Handwork. 








(0) 


(132) 


(222) 


(234) 


(2S8) 


(246) 


(2^8) 


(278) 


Geometry . 








— 


— 


— 


18 


42 


72 


102 


112 


Total . 








1 190 


1263 


1502 


1609 


1730 


1782 


1822 


1788 



FRANCE 

In France, the program of studies is prescribed 
by the national authority. For the ecole primaire 
elementaire it is as follows : — 



Grade 



Moral Instruction . 
Writing .... 
Language . . . 
Arithmetic . . . 
Geography, History 

Civics .... 
Common Things, Ele 

mentary Science . 
Physical Training . 
Drawing .... 
Singing .... 
Manual Training . 
Sewing .... 



Total 



11 



III 



IV 



VI 



Five Recitations per Week 



300 
600 
225 

300 

75 
150 



300 
600 
225 

300 

75 
50 



Gradually decreasing 



600 
300 

300 

150 
5o 



600 
300 

300 

150 

150 



600 
300 

300 

150 
225 



Two or Three Recitations per Week 



600 
300 

300 

150 

225 



60 

150 

(150) 



60 

150 

(150) 



60 
150 

(150) 



1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 



60 
150 

(150) 



60 

180 

(180) 



60 

180 

(180) 



[800 



x This grade more nearly corresponds to the second-year work of the other 
countries, by reason of the preparation given in the ecoles materndles and 
classes en/antines. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 209 

For the ecole primaire superieure, the program 



is 



Year 



Moral Instruction 

French 

Writing 

History and Civics 

Geography 

Modern Language 

Mathematics 

Bookkeeping and Accounts . . 
Physics and Chemistry . . . 
Natural History and Hygiene . 
Agriculture and Horticulture 
Common Law, Political Economy 
Drawing and Modeling . . . 
Manual or Agricultural Work . 

Gymnastics 

Singing 

Total 



I 


II 
60 


60 


300 


300 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


180 


l8o 


240 


l8o 


— 


60 


120 


I20 


60 


60 


60 


60 


180 


180 


240 


240 


120 


I20 


60 


60 


1800 


l800 



III 



60 

240 

60 

120 

60 

120 

180 
60 

120 

60 

60 

60 

l8o 

24O 

120 

60 



l800 



ENGLAND 

In England, the school is the unit, and the only 
influence exercised by central authority upon the 
curriculum of the individual school is that which 
comes by awarding financial aid to those schools 
which maintain a certain standard of efficiency. 
Again we are indebted to Dr. Payne for a com- 
posite table of ten English cities. 



2IO 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Grade 



Scripture 

Reading 

Writing 

Spelling 

Grammar 

Recitation or Literature . . 

Composition 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geography 

History 

Object Lessons, Elementary 

Science, Nature Study . . 

Physical Training .... 

Drawing 

Singing 

Woodwork 

Needlework 

Cooking 

French 

Total 



155 
210 
123 

66 
42 
52 
43 
267 

3 
S3 
32 

62 

48 

US 

64 

8 

(103) 

(14) 

4 



1347 



155 

206 

91 
85 
49 
57 
52 
266 

3 
64 

33 

61 

49 

125 

64 

16 

(103) 

(14) 

4 



1369 



III 



156 

181 

85 
60 
66 
56 
61 
276 

3 
80 

37 

55 
52 
125 
64 

19 
(106) 

(14) 
2 



1361 



IV 



156 
154 

78 

58 
67 
53 
54 
308 

5 

91 
42 

44 

42 

127 

64 

18 

(106) 

(12) 

2 



1359 



156 
140 
69 

43 
67 
54 
85 
294 

13 

87 
40 

40 
46 
127 

67 

5o 

(107) 

(12) 

2 



1380 



VI 



156 

127 
62 

39 
70 

53 
99 
293 
35 
88 
40 

4i 

43 

130 

67 
61 
(106) 
(12) 
29 



1433 



VII 



156 
108 

73 
33 
67 

5o 
72 

257 
61 
70 
34 

46 
29 

121 

65 
71 
(126) 
(12) 
36 



1359 



VIII 



156 

76 

70 

5 
65 

95 
25 
231 
136 
97 
58 

92 
30 
95 
70 

(157) 
47 



1338 



SUMMARY 



In studying comparatively these national tables, 
perhaps the most striking difference to be noted 
is the heavy demands made upon the pupils in 
the French schools. The large total of 1S00 
minutes per week, exclusive of study periods, is 
carried down to the very lowest grade. The 
English table also shows an approximate equal- 
ity of time allotment throughout all grades. This 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 211 

too is the American custom, the total weekly 
time spent in school being generally 1500 min- 
utes. In Germany alone of these four systems 
do we find a marked difference between the time 
required of pupils of the lowest and of the high- 
est grade. 

Considering the work of the schools along the 
large divisions of physical, mental, and moral 
training, we may make two broad generalizations: 
(1) Physical training receives the largest degree 
of attention in England, 1 with America far be- 
hind the two continental countries. (2) Moral 
instruction finds practically no place in the Amer- 
ican curriculum, unless we consider as such the 
comparatively insignificant effect of certain gen- 
eral appeals for ethical training in the syllabuses 
of some cities and the quite general provision for 
the reading of the Bible in the schools, usually 
"without note or comment." Quite to the con- 
trary, the subject receives much attention in the 
programs of the other countries — in England 

1 " The time allotments, while making a fairly good showing, do 
not properly indicate the status of physical culture in the English 
schools, for the English organize games in the recess periods and 
conduct numerous systematic sports after school hours that are not 
shown in the time allotments." — Payne, op. at., p. 101. 



212 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and Germany 1 in the form of dogmatic religious 
teaching in accord with the faith elected by the 
parents of the individual children, and in France 
in the form of prescribed instruction in ethics 
and civics along strictly nonsectarian lines. 

We may make a still further grouping of sub- 
jects by separating from the others the distinctive 
"arts and crafts." Placing in this group draw- 
ing, music, and the various forms of manual train- 
ing, we see England again in the lead. Germany 
seems preeminent in music and France in man- 
ual work, which it provides in equal measure for 
both sexes. 

Of course the mere statement of the time de- 
voted to the various subjects by no means indi- 
cates the character and extent of the teaching of 
those subjects. To get any thorough basis for 
comparison of countries in this respect, it would 
be necessary to investigate the many syllabuses 
which prescribe the details. Such a task is be- 
yond the scope of this study, and so we must con- 

1 " In Germany there is much secret dissatisfaction with the reli- 
gious requirements in the schools. There is a strong belief that 
religious instruction as carried on there does more harm than 
good." — Gillette, op. cit., p. 208, in Chap. 9, "State Education and 
Religion." 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



213 



tent ourselves with the very general comparisons 
which the time schedules furnish. So, too, are 
we limited as to the number of countries which 
may be considered. Beyond the four referred to, 
however, one is of peculiar interest — we may 
profitably give space to the program of Japan. 

ELEMENTARY COURSE (1907) 
Hours per Week 





Ordinary 


Higher 




I 


II 


III 

2 

6 

I 
I 

I 

3 
1 

(0 

(I) 


IV 

2 

14 

6 

1 
1 
1 

3 
2 

(2) 
(2) 

27 
29 


V 

2 
10 

4 
3 

2 

(2) 

(1) 
2 

3 

3 

(2) 
(2) 

28 
30 


VI 

2 
10 
4 
3 
2 

(2) 
(0 

2 

3 

3 

(2) 

(2) 


VII 
2 

8 
4 
3 
2 
2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
2 
1 

(2) 


VIII 

2 
8 
4 
3 

2 
2 
1 

2 
3 

4 
2 

1 

(2) 


IX 


Morals 

Language .... 
Arithmetic .... 
History and Geography 

Science 

Drawing — Boys . . 
Drawing — Girls . . 

Singing 

Gymnastics and Games 
Sewing — Girls. . . 
Manual Work — Boys 
Manual Work — Girls 
Agriculture or Com- 
merce 


2 
IO 

5 
(0 

(0 

I 
3 

(0 

(0 

21 
21 


2 

12 

6 

(0 

CO 
I 

3 
(0 

(0 


2 
8 

4 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 

3 
6 

2 

1 

(2) 


Total — Boys. . 
Total — Girls . . 


24 
24 


27 
28 


28 
30 


28 
30 


28 
30 


28 
30 



( ) = Optional according to local circumstances. 



CHAPTER XIV 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



" The striking thing about the Roman secondary school is 
that the culture, which conditioned its existence, was foreign ; 
and this has remained true of the secondary schools of all 
nations which have appeared in the subsequent history of 
Western civilization." — Anderson, "History of Common 
School Education," p. 47. 

" European and American secondary schools are somewhat 
alike in their curricula, in that studies contributing to general 
culture play the main role, and in the fact that the content as 
well as the method of teaching is largely determined in response 
to the demands of the superior institutions." — Dutton-Sned- 
den," Administration of Public Education in the United States," 
P- 356. 

The conflict between the classical and the 
scientific spirit has raged most fiercely about the 
secondary school and its curriculum. We have 
seen how, in all countries, the proponents of the 
theory that only the study of the classics is cul- 
turally worth while have had to yield before the 
assaults of modernism. While there yet lingers 
among the elect the feeling that one who has not 

214 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 5 

mastered the ancient languages and literatures 
can never know the true meaning of education, 
the fact is that everywhere men and women are 
training themselves in the modern languages and 
the sciences, with no conscious thought that their 
consequent neglect of the classics has put them 
outside the pale. Officially, the equality of the 
two contrasted phases of education has been 
almost universally proclaimed. This condition 
has been brought about so very recently that per- 
haps we are not yet in a position properly to 
evaluate the trend or to estimate the future status 
of secondary education. 

Says Chancellor Brown : * " The consideration of tendencies 
in secondary education just now brings us near to the very 
heart of our civilization. For the past ten or twelve years we 
have seen middle-school problems occupying a central place in 
the thought of the great culture nations. We have had a decade 
or more of middle-school reforms." He cites among the sig- 
nificant events: the Berlin Conference, 1890; the Committee 
of Ten, 1893; the English Parliamentary Commission on Sec- 
ondary Education, 1895 ; the establishment of the English 
Board of Education ; the Commission appointed by the French 
Chamber of Deputies, 1899; the Brunswick Declaration and 
Kiel Decree, 1900. " It is a most remarkable record, and war- 

1 Elmer E. Brown, " The Making of Our Middle Schools," Long- 
mans, Green, 1903, p. 464. 



2l6 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

rants the belief that we have just been passing through one of 
the greatest formative epochs in the history of secondary 
schools." 

It will be wise only to note the fact that at the 
present day the secondary curriculum is marked 
by diversity of courses and that this diversity is 
greatest in the American schools. In the United 
States the pupil is allowed great latitude in selec- 
tion, many courses in many subjects being offered 
him, even within a single high school. On the 
continent, the pupil's option is rather between 
schools than between courses within a school ; a 
school once selected, he finds little opportunity 
to choose from among the subjects presented. 
Moreover, in Germany for example, if he happens 
to live in a community which supports only one 
of the three kinds of schools, he has really no 
choice. 

UNITED STATES 

The secondary schools of the United States 
have made an advance within the last generation, 
far beyond anything experienced by those of con- 
tinental Europe. This is so, in a measure, because 
there was greater room for improvement. " In 
quality as well as in quantity of information im- 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 7 

parted, our public high school courses quite equal 
and in many ways surpass our former college 
courses, except in subjects which are no longer 
compulsory therein." 1 

Even more than in the case of the elementary 
schools, the curriculum of the high schools is left 
unprescribed by the State departments, although 
some States, as for instance New Jersey, issue 
suggestive syllabuses. Each city or district 
board of education exercises its discretion, with 
the result that the courses offered in various cities 
differ considerably in details. Nevertheless there 
are certain characteristics common to all, so that 
we may readily describe the typical, or composite, 
American high school curriculum. Exclusive of 
those avowedly vocational, which will be con- 
sidered in a later chapter, three courses are 
offered. These go under various names, but are 
usually known as classical, scientific, and general. 
The first two of these prepare for the colleges, 
and the third gives a general education for those 
pupils whose formal schooling must end with the 
completion of the secondary stage. The typical 
studies of the classical course are : English and 

1 Birdseye, "Individual Training," p. 126. 



2l8 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Latin, throughout the four years ; French or 
German, from two to four years ; Greek, the last 
two or three years; mathematics (algebra and 
geometry) two or three years ; together with vary- 
ing required or optional amounts of history 
(ancient and modern), science (physiology, 
botany, zoology, physics, chemistry), and drawing. 
The scientific course retains the English but 
modifies the Latin requirement, extends the 
mathematics, makes more of the science obli- 
gatory, offers a greater amount of modern lan- 
guage, and adds certain technical subjects — 
manual training, applied arts, etc. The general 
course offers a wider choice of modern languages 
from the beginning (two may be taken in the 
first year), and several broad options in history 
and science. 

The above, of course, is only a very general 
statement. Also in general, it may be said that a 
pupil must take a minimum of four hours of recita- 
tions daily, and that this time will be occupied with 
four or five, rarely more than six, different sub- 
jects. As a specific instance, the three academic 
courses of the Jersey City High School may serve 
as a type. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



219 



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220 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



< 

K 

w 

w 
O 


English, 4 

Algebra, 4 

French or German or Latin, 5 

Physics, 5 

Modern History, 3 

Additional language, op., 5 


English, 4 

French or German or Latin, 5 

Chemistry, 5 

Stenography, 3 j 

Typewriting, 2 \ 

Bookkeeping, 5 

Additional language, op., 5 


English, 5 

French or German or Latin, 5 
Chemistry, 5 
Stenography, 3 ) Qr 
Typewriting, 2 j 
Bookkeeping, 5 
Additional language, op., 5 
Astronomy, optional, 3 


< 
u 

2 
a 
u 
u 
H 


English, 4 

Algebra, 4 

Latin, 5 

French or German, op., 5 

Physics, 5 

Solid Geometry, 4 


English, 4 

Latin, 5 

French or German, op., 5 

Chemistry, 5 

Trigonometry, 4 


English, 4 

Latin, 5 

French or German, op., 5 

Chemistry, 5 

Astronomy, optional, 3 


< 

in 
•< 

u 


English, 4 

Algebra, 4 

Latin, 5 

Greek, 5 

French or German, 5 

Physics, optional, 5 

Modern History, op., 3 


English, 4 

Latin, 5 

Greek, 5 

French or German, 5 

Chemistry, op., 5 


English, 4 

Latin, 5 

Greek, 5 

French or German, 5 

Chemistry, op., 5 


H 
D 

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1-4 


pq 

CI 
H 



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z ° 

J5 TJ 






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IS o 

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E o 

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55 * <3 

3 .9 3 

5M 

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SECONDARY EDUCATION 



221 



Certain variations may be noted. Washington, 
D.C., for instance, in addition to the classical and 
scientific courses, offers a modern language and a 
history course, as follows : — 





Modern Language 


History 




English I, 5 


English I, 5 




Algebra, 5 


Algebra, 5 




History (Ana), 4 


History (Ana), 4 


ist Year 


German I, 5 


(Elect one) 

Latin I, 5 
German I, 5 




English II, 4 


English II, 4 




PI. Geometry, 4 


History (Med.), 4 




German II, 5 


PI. Geometry, 4 


2d Year 


(Elect one) 


(Elect one) 






French I, 5 


Latin II, 5 






Physics I, 5 


German II, 5 




' 


Chemistry I, 5 
Biology I, 5 
History (Med.), 4 






English 111,4 


English III, 4 




f French II, 5 or 
j Physics II, 5 or 


History (Mod.), 4 








I Chemistry II, 5 or 


(Elect one from each group) 




[Biology II, s 




3d Year 


(Elect two from different groups) 


f Latin III, 4 
j German III, 4 




German III, 4 


1 
German I, 5 




f French I, 5 


1 

[ French 1, 5 




\ Latin I, 5 






L Spanish I, 5 


f Physics 1,5 




j Solid Geom. and Trig., 5 


J Chemistry I, 5 




1 History (Mod.), 4 


[ Biology I, 5 



222 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 





Modern Language 


History 




English IV, 4 


English IV, 4 




(Elect three from different groups) 


American History, 4 




German IV, 4 


Civics and Economics, 4 




French III, 4 






\ French 11,5 


(Elect one) 


4th Year 


•j Latin 11,5 
[Spanish II, 5 


( Latin IV, 4 




J German II or IV, 5 or 4 






r College Algebra & Analytics, 5 


1 French II or IV, 5 or 4 






American History, 4 








Physics I, 5 








Chemistry I, 5 








[Biology 1,5 





Minneapolis, Minn., designates its three aca- 
demic courses: English, Latin, Literary. The ad- 
justment of the curriculum to local conditions is 
seen in the appearance of Swedish and Norwegian 
as optional languages in the last three years of 
the Literary course. 

St. Louis, Mo., combines its subjects into six 
courses, thus : — 

Art : Requiring drawing and history of art ; no foreign 
language until third year. 

. „ t Giving choice between Latin and modern languages. 
Scientific j 6 & & 

Classical 1 Requiring Latin, Greek, and a modern Ian- 

College Classical! guage. 
College Scientific : Requiring Latin and a modern language. 

Los Angeles, Cal. in its Hollywood High 
School offers eight academic courses, and in the 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 223 

Los Angeles High School schedules no less than 
twelve distinct courses, as follows : — 



A. 


Classical 




Preparing 


B. 
C. 


Latin 1 „ . , 

, . , _ , , Social and Natural 

Latin and Modern f . 

Sciences and Commerce 
Languages J 


for the 
University 
of Califor- 


D. 


Mechanical Mining 


nia, Stan- 




and Civil Engineer- 


ford, and 




ing and Chemistry 


Eastern 


E. 


Architecture 


colleges. 


F. 


Fine and Applied Arts : Preparing for University of Cali- 




fornia. 


G. 


Fine and Applied Arts : Preparing for Mark Hopkins, Pratt 




Institute, and Chicago Insti- 




tute of Art. 


H. 


Modern Language' 




I. 

J- 


General Science 
English 


Preparing for Stanford University. 


K. 
L. 


History and Econc 
Music and English 


mics] XT . 

Not fully preparing for 


college. 



So liberal has become the degree of choice 
offered to pupils, that many of the high schools 
think of their courses in terms of options rather 
than of requirements. Formerly they said to the 
student : This is the course, except that at certain 
points you may, if you wish, substitute certain sub- 
jects for those required. Now they say : These 
are the subjects; take what you wish of them, ex- 



224 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



cept that at certain points you must take what we 
prescribe. The flexibility of the present-day cur- 
riculum is such that the requirements for a di- 
ploma of graduation are usually stated in a total 
number of weekly hours or in a total number of 
" points " based upon hours. The general scope of 
the typical high school course may be better pre- 
sented by the following concise summary of the 
Chicago course : — 

Subjects Offered, with Number of Hours Per Week. 
Graduation upon 80 Weekly Hours 



Subjects 



English .... 
Latin .... 
German .... 
French .... 
Spanish .... 
Mathematics . . 
Science .... 
Commercial Studies 
Manual Training. 
Sewing .... 
Drawing . . . 
Music .... 
Physical Education 
History .... 
Greek .... 
Cooking . . . 



Year 



4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
io 
6 
8 
8 

2 
I 
I 



III 



IV 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 225 

English includes Classics, Grammar, Composition, Rhetoric, with 
History of Literature in III and IV. 

Mathematics is Algebra (I), Plane Geometry (II), Advanced Alge- 
bra or Solid Geometry (III), and Trigonometry or Arithmetic (IV). 

Science is Physiology (required)and Physiography (I), Biology(II), 
Physics or Chemistry (III) and (IV), Geology or Astronomy (IV). 

Commercial Studies are Arithmetic, Bookkeeping, Business 
Forms, Penmanship (I), Stenography and Typewriting, or Ac- 
counting (II), Commercial Geography (III), Commercial Law and 
Economics (IV). 

Almost universally the American high school 
course extends over four years. In a few in- 
stances a preparatory year or two is offered, as by 
Providence, R.I , in its Hope Street High School. 
This school offers all courses found in the 
Classical and English high schools. It also gives 
opportunity for pupils who have completed six 
years of elementary school work, with extra credit, 
to take a two years' junior course before the 
regular high school work begins. 

The work of these two junior years is as 
follows : — 

Junior I Junior II 

Arithmetic . . . . . . 4 1 Arithmetic 4 1 

Geography 3 2 French i\ 

History 2 History i\ 

Spelling 2 Language 5 2 

Language . . . . . . 5 1 Physiology 2 1 

French 5 1 Latin 5 x 

Drawing 1 1 

1 One lesson per week unprepared. 

2 Two lessons per week unprepared. 
Q 



226 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



On the other hand, some high schools make a 
point of preparing for college in three or three and 
a half years. In New York, Townsend Harris 
Hall, connected with the College of the City of 
New York, a municipal institution, prepares for 
the college in three years. It conducts four parallel 
courses, as follows : — 









ARTS I 


ARTS II 




Classes 


Classes 




C 


B 


A 


O 

H 


C 


B 


A 


Is 


H 




Hours 


Hours 


Hours 




Hours 


Hours 


Hours 




English .... 


5 


4 


4 


13 


5 


4 


4 


13 


Latin 

Greek 


5 


5 
5 


5 

5 


*5 

10 


5 


5 


5 


15 


French 


— 






^ 


— 


5 


5 


10 


French or German . 


— 


— 


5 


5 


— 






— 


German .... 














5 


<; 


Mathematics . . . 


5 


5 


2 


12 


5 


5 


2 


12 


History 

Drawing .... 
Physical Instruction . 


3 
5 


3 

1 


2 
1 


8 

7 

2 


3 
5 


3 

1 
1 


2 
1 


8 

7 

2 




23 


24 


25 


72 


23 


24 


25 


72 




ARTS III 


SCIENCE 




Classes 


Classes 




C 


B 


A 


1 


C 


B 


A 






Hours 


Hours 


Hours 




Hours 


Hours 


Hours 




English 
French . . 
German 






5 
5 


4 
5 
5 


4 
5 
5 


13 
10 


5 

5 


4 
5 
5 


4 

5 
5 


13 

10 


Spanish 
Mathematics 






5 


5 


5 

2 


5 
12 


S 


5 


5 


I* 


History . . 
Drawing . 
Physics . . 
Physical Instn 


cti 


Dn . 


3 
5 


3 

1 

1 


2 

1 

1 


8 
7 

2 


3 
5 


3 
1 

1 


1 

4 
1 

25 


6 

7 
4 
2 








23 


24 


25 


72 


23 


24 


72 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



227 



GERMANY 

By sharp contrast with the flexibility of the 
American curriculum, the German courses are 
extremely rigid. Those prescribed for the three 
kinds of secondary school follow. It will be seen 
that, within each schedule, there are practically 
no options. The figures given represent number 
of hours per week, but in actual practice the school 
hour may be but little more than forty minutes. 

GYMNASIUM 



Year 


1 

3 
4 
8 

2 

4 

2 
2 

2 

3 

30 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Total 


Religion . 
German . 
Latin . . 
Greek . . 
French 
History . 
Geography 
Mathematics 
Natural Sciei 
Writing . 
Drawing . 
Singing . 
Gymnastics 


ice 


1 




2 

3 
8 

2 

4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
30 


2 

3 

8 

4 
2 
2 

4 

2 

2 

3 
32 


2 

2 

8 
6 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

3 
33 


2 
2 
8 

6 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

3 
33 


2 

3 
7 
6 

3 
2 
1 

4 
2 

3 


2 

3 
7 
6 

3 
3 

4 
2 

3 


2 

3 
7 
6 

3 
3 

4 
2 

3 


2 
3 
7 
6 

3 
3 

4 
2 

3 


19 

26 

68 
36 

20 

17 
9 

34 
18 

4 
8 

4 
27 


Total 


33 


33 


33 


33 


290 



1 In years 5-9, physics, chemistry, etc. Hebrew optional for three years. 



228 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 
REALGYMNASIUM 



Year 


1 


2 


3 


4 

2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
2 
2 

5 
2 

2 

3 
33 


5 

2 

3 
5 

4 
3 

2 
2 

5 

2 

2 

3 

33 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Total 


Religion . 
German . 
Latin . . 
French 
English . 
History . 
Geography 
Mathematics 
Nat. Science 
Writing . 
Drawing . 
Singing . 
Gymnastics 




3 

4 
8 

2 

4 

2 
2 

2 

3 
30 


2 

3 
8 

2 

4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 

3° 


2 

3 

7 
5 

2 

2 

4 
2 

2 

3 

32 


2 

3 

4 
4 
3 

2 

1 

5 
4 

2 

3 
33 


2 

3 
4 
4 
3 
3 

5 
5 

2 

3 
34 


2 

3 

4 
4 
3 
3 

5 
5 

2 

3 
34 


2 

3 

4 
4 
3 
3 

5 
5 

2 

3 
34 


19 

28 

49 
29 
18 

17 
11 

42 
29 

4 
16 

4 
27 


Total . 


293 



OBERREALSCHULE 



Year 


1 


2 

2 


3 

2 


4 
2 


5 

2 


6 

2 


7 

2 


8 


9 


Total 


Religion . . 


3 


2 


2 


19 


German . . 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


34 


French . . . 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


4 


47 


English . . 


— 


— 


— 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


25 


History . . . 


— 


— 


3 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


18 


Geography . . 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


14 


Mathematics . 


5 


5 


6 


6 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


47 


Nat. Science . 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


6 


6 


6 


6 


36 


Writing . . 


2 


2 


2 














6 


Freeh'nd Draw. 1 


— 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


16 


Singing . . 


2 


2 
















4 


Gymnastics . 


3 
30 


3 

30 


3 

32 


3 
33 


3 
33 


3 
33 


3 

34 


3 

34 


3 


27 


Total . . 


34 


293 



1 Mechanical Drawing, 2 hours in 5-9, optional. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



229 



One particularly commendable feature of the Ger- 
man secondary school is that no student may be 
graduated who is deficient in the mother tongue. 

That the inflexibility of their curriculum is 
recognized by Germans as a disadvantage is 
shown by the efforts being made to reform the 
condition. One instance is the experiment at 
Frankfort, where the gymnasial program in the 
so-termed Reform School is as follows : — 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Total 


Religion 
German . 
Latin 
Greek 
French . 
Hist, and Ge 
Mathematics 
Natural Hist 
Physics . 
Writing . 
Drawing 
Singing . 
Gymnastics 


or 3 


r 


3 

5 

6 
2 

5 
2 

2 

2 
3 

30 


2 
4 

6 
2 
5 
3 

2 
2 
2 
3 


2 

4 

6 
6 

5 
3 

2 
3 


2 

3 

10 

3 
3 

4 
2 

2 
3 


2 

3 

10 

2 

4 
4 
2 

2 
3 


2 

3 
8 
8 
2 
2 
3 

2 
3 


2 

3 
8 
8 
2 
2 
3 

2 
3 


2 

3 
8 
8 

2 
2 
3 

2 
3 


2 

3 
8 

7 

2 

3 
3 

2 
3 


19 

31 
52 
31 
31 
26 

35 
9 

10 

4 
8 

4 

27 


Total . 






30 


32 


33 


33 


32 


32 


33 


33 


288 



" The chief practical advantage expected from 
placing French first and postponing Latin for 
three years is that parents may delay their deci- 



230 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



sion as to the type of secondary education their 
children shall have. The reform plan also makes 
it easier for pupils to enter the Gymnasium from 
the elementary schools." 1 

The work of the girls' secondary schools ex- 
tends over ten years, 2 and the character of the 
course may be understood from the following 
summary cf the total number of hours per week 
for the entire ten years. 



Religion . . 
German . . 
Latin . . . 
Greek . . . 
French . . 
English . . 
History . . 
Geography . 
Mathematics 
Nature . . 
Writing . . 
Drawing . . 
Needlework . 
Singing . . 
Gymnastics . 

Total . 



316 





Real- 


Oberreal- 




gymnasium 


SCHULB 


23 


23 


23 


38 


38 


44 


36 


36 


— 


32 


— 


— 


34 


38 


44 


10 


22 


28 


18 


18 


18 


14 


14 


15 


32 


36 


39 


23 


31 


32 


3 


3 


3 


12 


20 


20 


6 


6 


6 


8 


8 


10 


27 


27 


27 



320 



309 



1 Charles DeGarmo, " Principles of Secondary Education — The 
Studies," Macmillan, 1907, p. 245. 

2 See p. 102. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 1 

FRANCE 

In France, the reform program of 1902 marked 
" the passing of the classics, not as an instrument 
of general culture, but as the sole medium by 
which that general culture could be attained." 
" France has come out boldly and recognized, 
at least officially, the exact parity between the 
scientific education and the classical education. 
* Scientific humanism has won the right of sit- 
ting side by side with literary humanism.' " * In 
fact, France has gone a step farther than have the 
American colleges, in that a single baccalaureate 
degree has replaced the old-time bachelor of arts 
and bachelor of science. The French secure 
flexibility of curriculum through a peculiar ar- 
rangement. The seven years of the secondary 
program are divided into two cycles, the first of 
four years, and the second, whose three years is 
again broken at the end of two. In the first 
cycle there is choice of two courses, classical and 
scientific ; in the second, a choice of four courses 
in both subdivisions of the cycle. Schematically, 
the arrangement is this : — - 

iFarrington, "French Secondary Schools," p. 124, in chapter 
on " The Program." 



232 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



First Cycle 
Year: 12 3 4 

( A. Classical Course ) 
( B. Scientific Course > 



Second Cycle 



fA. Latin-Greek 

B. Latin-Modern 

Language 

C. Latin-Science 

D. Science-Modern 

Language 



Philosophy 
Mathematics -j 



A. 

B. 

A. 

(B. 



The weekly hour table follows : - 
First Cycle — Years 1-4 





Division A 


Division B 




I 


11 


in 


IV 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


French 

Latin 

Modern Languages . . . 
History and Geography . 

Mathematics 

Natural Science .... 

Drawing 

Writing 

Ethics 

Greek (optional) . . . 

Physics and Chemistry . . 

Civil Government and 

Common Law .... 


3 
7 
5 
3 
2 
1 
2 


3 

7 
5 
3 
2 

1 
2 


3 
6 

5 
3 
2 

1 
2 

1 

(3) 


3 
6 

5 
3 
3 

2 
(3) 


5 

5 

3 

4 
2 

2 


5 

5 
3 
4 
2 
2 


5 

5 
3 
5 

2 

1 

2 

2 


4 

5 
3 

5 

1 

3 

1 

2 
2 

1 


Totals 


23 


23 


23 
(3) 


23 
(3) 


22 


22 


23 


25 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



233 



Second Cycle — Years 5-6 





Section A 


Section B 


Section C 


Section D 




I 


11 


I 


11 


I 


11 


I 


II 


French 

Latin . 

Greek 

Modern History .... 
Ancient History .... 

Geography 

Modern Languages . . . 

Mathematics 

Physics and Chemistry . . 
Physics and Chemistry, 

laboratory 

Drawing 

Optional Latin .... 
Optional Mathematics . . 


3 

4 

5 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 

2 


3 
5 
5 

2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
i 

(2) 
(2) 


3 
4 

2 
2 
1 

7 
2 
1 

2 


3 
3 

2 
2 
1 

7 
1 
1 

(2) 

(2) 
(2) 


3 

4 

2 

1 
2 
5 
3 

2 

4 


3 
3 

2 

1 
2 
5 
3 

2 
4 


3 

2 

1 

7 
5 
3 

2 
4 


3 

2 

1 

7 
5 
3 

2 
4 




24 


22 


24 


20 


26 


25 


27 


27 



Second Cycle — Year 7 





Philosophy 


Mathematics 




Section A 


Section B 


Section A 


Section B 


Philosophy 

Greek-Latin 

Latin 

Modern Languages . . . 
History and Geography . 

Mathematics 

Physics and Chemistry 
Natural Sciences . . . 
Physics and Chemistry, 

laboratory 

Drawing 


8* 

(4) 

(2) 
3* 

2| 

3 

2 

(2) 


8* 

3* 

3 

2 

00 


3 

2 

31 

8 

5 
2 

2 
2 + (2) 


3 

7 1 
3* 

8 

5 
2 

2 
2 + (2) 


Total 


*9i 

(8) 


22^ 

(4) 


27I 
(2) 


28| 

(2) 



1 2 hours of which may be pupil's own selection. 



234 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



ENGLAND 



In England the only limitation placed upon the 
freedom of each school to devise its own course of 
study is the necessity of complying with certain 
governmental regulations in order to secure State 
aid. 

The prescription of the Board of Education is 
as follows : — 

" The obligatory subjects of the course are the 
English language and literature, at least one lan- 
guage other than English, geography, history, 
mathematics, science, and drawing. A curricu- 
lum including two languages other than English, 
but making no provision for instruction in Latin, 
will only be approved where the Board are satisfied 
that the omission of Latin is for the educational 
advantage of the school. 

" Provision must be made in all the schools for 
organized games, physical exercises, manual in- 
struction, and singing. Schools for girls must 
offer practical instruction in domestic subjects, 
such as needlework, cookery, laundry work, house- 
keeping and household hygiene ; for girls over 
fifteen years of age an approved course in a com- 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 



235 



bination of these subjects may be substituted, 
partially or wholly, for science and for mathe : 
matics other than arithmetic." 

JAPAN 

The Japanese Middle School program is as 
follows : — 



Morals 

Language and Chinese Literature 

Foreign Language 

History and Geography . . . 

Mathematics 

Natural Sciences 

Physics and Chemistry .... 

Law and Economics 

Drawing 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

Total 



28 



11 



28 



ill 



29 



IV 



30 



30 



CHAPTER XV 

HIGHER EDUCATION 

" The university touches all human interests, is concerned 
with the past, the present, and the future, ranges through the 
whole history of letters, sciences, arts, and professions, and 
aspires to teach all systematized knowledge. More and more, 
as time goes on, and individual and social wealth accumulates, 
it will find itself realizing its ideal of yesterday, though still 
pursuing eagerly its ideal for to-morrow." — Eliot, "University 
Administration," p. 254. 

Great has been the development of the uni- 
versity curriculum since the days of ancient 
Rome. The measure of this development is, of 
course, but the measure of the advance in civili- 
zation, in the accumulation of scientific data, in 
the interest of humanity in research and experi- 
ment, and in the ability of the human mind to 
analyze and to generalize. Again, as in our 
review of secondary instruction, we must take 
account of the time-long contest between classics 
and science, between humanism and realism. Is 
it, indeed, stretching a point to date this back to 
the Roman university ? Is not their grouping 

of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic into the triv- 

236 



HIGHER EDUCATION 237 

ium, and of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and 
music into the quadrivium, but the precursor of 
the modern contraposition of the humanities and 
the sciences ? All that we have said as to the 
war between the two camps over the secondary 
schools is equally descriptive of the campaign in 
the university. The universities of the world 
constitute the battleground ; and as we glance 
over that ground it would seem that the classical 
forces are strongest in conservative England and 
weakest in adventuring America. England is by 
no means given over to the orthodox, however, 
and the temper of the attack is illustrated by the 
following quotation from the pen of Mr. Norman 
Lockyer : " We must arrange our education in 
some way in relation to the crying needs of the 
time. The least little dip into the history of the 
old universities will prick the bubble of classical 
education as it is presented to us to-day. Latin 
was not learned because it had the most magnifi- 
cent grammar of known languages. Greek was 
not learned in consequence of the transcendental 
sublimity of ancient Greek civilization. Both these 
things were learned because people had to learn 
them to get their daily bread, either as theologians 



238 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

or doctors or lawyers, and while they learned them, 
the c nature of things ' was not forgotten." 1 

In the United States, it was in 1868 that 
Cornell University was founded " in no small 
degree as an unconscious protest against the 
limitations of the traditional classical education." 2 
This date, while significant, cannot be taken as 
at all definitive. The changes in the curriculum 
here, as abroad, have come about gradually. 

From " the earliest to the latest record of the course of 
study in our colleges, an unbroken chain of development can 
be traced, a logical sequence of events can be established, and 
the causes that led to the inevitable consequence can be clearly 
shown." 3 Harvard, Yale, Wesleyan, etc., "started as schools 
and became colleges through the improvement of their curric- 
ulum so as to give collegiate degrees, but the pupils were long 
considered as children." 4 The earlier colleges were boarding 
schools ; boys entered at about thirteen and were graduated 
at seventeen. " The college course was not at first for culture, 

1 " Education and National Progress,' 1 London, 1906, p. 227. 

2 Thwing, " Higher Education in America," p. 433. Also p. 434, 
" Cornell was organized to represent the democracy of learning and 
Johns Hopkins was organized to promote the higher and necessarily 
immediately narrow relationships of learning." 

8 This is the thesis of Louis Franklin Snow, " The College Cur- 
riculum in the United States, 11 New York, 1907, p. 11. Also p. 171 : 
" If we trace our earlier collegiate impulses to Cambridge, to Oxford, 
and to Scotland, the later force is manifestly German in its origin. 11 

4 Birdseye, " Individual Training in our Colleges, 11 p. 5. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 239 

but was primarily for moral training, and next a strictly pro- 
fessional or semiprofessional course ; on graduation the stu- 
dents were practically prepared for their professional life ; and 
their preparation was relatively magnificent, and the only one 
that could be obtained in the colonies." 1 " For almost two 
hundred years after the foundation of Harvard College its 
course of study remained, in essential elements, unchanged. . . . 
But, beginning with the first decades of the nineteenth century, 
the course received significant enlargement. From that time 
to the present, the development has been constant." \ "To- 
day science dominates our schools. Our colonial ancestors 
studied and taught in an atmosphere of religion which they had 
inherited from the Middle Ages. For centuries the pedagogic 
aim had been to point the road to Heaven." 3 For almost 
two hundred years after the foundation of Harvard, nearly 
one-half of its graduates were clergymen. 

" The ordinary ■ college course ' which has been handed down 
from generation to generation is purely conventional. It is a 
result of a series of compromises in trying to fit the traditional 
education of clergymen and gentlemen to the needs of men of a 
different social era. The old college course met the needs of 
nobody, and therefore was adapted to all alike." 4 

" The history of the studies which have consti- 
tuted the educational course in the forty years is 

1 Birdseye, ibid., p. 33. 

2 Thwing, " Higher Education in America," p. 300. 

3 Colyer Meriwether, " Our Colonial Curriculum," Washington, 
1907, p. 13. Mr. Meriwether gives extensive bibliography on his 
subject; also a table which is here quoted (p. 240). 

4 Jordan, op. cit., p. 124. 



240 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



characterized by enlargement, by consequent va- 
riety of subjects, and by enrichment," 1 says Presi- 

COLLEGIATE STUDIES IN OUR COLONIAL PERIOD 





17TH Century 


1 8th Century 


Greek 


Translating; prose com- 
position; grammar; 
Testament. 


Plus Greek catechism. 


Latin 


Used as medium of com- 


Translating; composi- 




munication. 


tion and grammar. 


Semitic .... 


Hebrew; translating 


Hebrew; translating 




prose composition; 


prose composition; 




grammar. Elementary 


grammar. 




Chaldee and Syriac. 




Mathematics . . . 


Arithmetic; geometry. 


Arithmetic; geometry. 


History .... 


Very little. 


Very little. 


Philosophy . . . 


Logic; ethics. 


Logic; ethics. 


English .... 


Rhetoric; composition; 


Rhetoric; composition; 




oratory .(disputes); 


oratory (disputes); 




grammar. 


grammar. 


Political Science 


Politics (with ethics). 


Politics (with ethics). 


Physics .... 


Elements. 


Elements. 


Bible 


New Testament; theol- 


New Testament (in 




ogy; 0^ Testament. 


Greek); theology; 
Old Testament (ex- 
pounded. 


Romance languages 




Elementary French. 


Astronomy . . . 


Elements. 


Elements. 


Botany .... 


" Nature of plants." 


Elements. 



1 " Education in the United States since the Civil War," p. 73. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 241 

dent Thwing. He calculates that the enlarge- 
ment of the course of study has been sixfold, due 
to the " vastness of the enlargement of the field of 
knowledge itself." Among the chief additions 
have been general history, ancient and modern ; 
economics, political science, and government; 
chemistry and kindred sciences; English litera- 
ture; and the higher mathematics. Among the 
landmarks in the history of the collegiate curricu- 
lum are : economics introduced at Harvard in 
1820, Yale in 1824, Princeton in 1830; professor- 
ship in modern languages established at Bowdoin, 
1825 ; first chair of history established, at William 
and Mary, 1822, at Harvard, 1839, at Yale,i865. 

Whatever the arguments for and against the 
elective system, we must recognize the fact that 
at the present time it is to some degree at least 
the " prevailing condition at all well-equipped col- 
leges." * This has necessitated the introduction 
of the "point" system in determining qualifica- 

1 Says President Eliot : " I have never known a student of any 
capacity to select for himself a set of studies covering four years 
which did not apparently possess more theoretical and practical 
merit for his case than the required curriculum of my college days." 
And Chancellor Brown makes this estimate: "On the whole, the 
enlargement of freedom is not working badly in its bearing on 



242 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

tions for graduation. Fifteen hours of lectures 
and recitations per week is the minimum require- 
ment. Thus sixty such units in four years is re- 
quired for graduation; or if the year is divided 
into semesters, 120 points; or if into three terms, 
180 points. The statement of the University of 
Indiana is typical : " A recitation or lecture is 
regularly fifty minutes in length, and the outside 
work of the student is estimated at an average of 
two hours for each class exercise. In laboratory 
work each exercise is from two to two hours and 
a half in length, with outside study to make it as 
nearly as possible equivalent in its demands to the 
conventional hour defined above." This univer- 
sity may also be taken as an average type as to the 
proportion of prescribed to elective work. Each 
student must pass in : — 

A. Six hours of English Composition. 

B. Three hours of hygiene. 

C. Thirty hours of language — options of 
Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, German, and com- 
parative philology. 

classical studies. If fewer students are pursuing such studies 
because required to do so or under the pressure of tradition, more 
are pursuing them from deliberate choice, either their own or their 
advisors." 



HIGHER EDUCATION 243 

D. Fifteen hours of mathematics or physics — 
any one of five stated combinations may be chosen. 

E. Fifteen hours in one of the remaining 
sciences — philosophy, chemistry, geology, zool- 
ogy, botany, anatomy, physiology. At least ten 
hours of this shall be laboratory work. 

F. Twenty-four hours from among history and 
political science, economics and social science, 
English literature, Greek literature in English, 
translation, philosophy, education, fine arts, history 
of English language. 

It will thus be seen that 93 of the 180 hours 
required for the bachelor's degree (Indiana has 
three terms to the year) are prescribed. This 
prescription is only in general terms, for within 
each prescribed group, excepting the first two, are 
many options. Thus we may venture a general 
statement that the American student can secure 
his bachelor's degree from the average college in 
good standing upon the completion of four years' 
work in subjects the larger number of which he 
has himself selected. 

Some institutions distinguish between the de- 
grees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of science, 
granting one or the other according to the charac- 



244 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ter of the subjects pursued ; others make no such 
distinction. The University of Michigan confers 
the arts degree, except that " a student who has 
earned at least 60 of the 1 20 hours in mathematics 
and the physical and biological sciences may, at his 
option, receive the degree of Bachelor of Science, 
instead of Bachelor of Arts." The indetermi- 
nateness of the average college diploma is set forth 
by Dr. Flexner in flowing language : " On the 
face of the diploma there is usually nothing to 
show where in the wide universe of science or 
scholarship the individuals preference lay. . . . 
He may have adhered closely to the traditional 
classical scheme ; or he may have entirely ignored 
the humanities in favor of political science ; or he 
may have ignored all the sciences but one; or he 
may have cultivated philosophy or modern litera- 
ture ; or finally he may have made a sort of 
gentlemanly 'grand tour' through the capitals 
of the chief provinces of intellectual interest." 1 

As the colleges make use of the point system in calculating 
quantity of work done by their students, so, too, " the colleges 
are largely adopting the free election or ' point ' system of ad- 
mission which has developed almost entirely since 1897. While 

1 Op. cit., p. 32. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 245 

adopting the principle, the colleges differ in its application. 
. . . They agree in publishing a list of twenty to thirty subjects, 
to each of which a value (point) is attached, and candidates 
for admission must secure a certain number of points. But the 
colleges differ (a) as to the number of points to be offered, 
hence there is a difference in the amount of option afforded ; 
(£) in their definition of the same subject ; (c) in the method 
of rating subjects ; (d) in making a distinction between ele- 
mentary and advanced subjects ; and most important of all 
(e) in not agreeing as to the meaning of the term ' point.' " * 

Prior to 1800 there were but three subjects required for ad- 
mission to any American college. They were Greek, Latin, 
and arithmetic. There have been added : geography, at Har- 
vard, 1807 ; English grammar, at Princeton, 18 19; algebra, at 
Harvard, 1820; geometry, at Harvard, 1844; ancient history, 
at Harvard and Michigan, 1847 ; United States history, at Michi- 
gan, 1869; physical science, at Harvard, 1872 ; English litera- 
ture, at Harvard, 1874; modern languages, at Harvard, 1875. 

Most of the colleges accept for admission, without examina- 
tion, graduates of recognized secondary schools. Usually there 
is a rigid system of "accrediting" these schools which main- 
tains the standard of applicants at a high level. 2 

1 Birdseye, "Individual Training," p. 122. 

2 The University of California, as an instance, publishes a list of 
public and private schools in the State of California, thus accredited, 
and prefixes the following 

Note. — The accrediting of secondary schools is an accrediting 
of schools rather than of subjects. Any recommendations issued by 
the principals will be provisionally accepted by the University, sub- 
ject to the following conditions : — 

(1) Recommendations are to be issued only for the graduates of 
the regular courses of the school ; 



246 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The elective system commends itself to those 
who favor collegiate coeducation. For by this 
means may the students of both sexes be kept 
together in the life of the college and at the same 
time be given instruction more specifically adapted 
to the individuals of both sexes. In many of the 
coeducational colleges there has been created the 
office of " Dean of Women," occupied by a woman 
of the faculty who devotes all, or nearly all, of 
her time to the interests of the women students. 
Under her guidance it may be possible for the 
student to secure for himself a curriculum that 
shall express a satisfactory compromise between 

(2) Recommendations are to be based exclusively upon the regu- 
lar work of the school and not upon private "coaching" or special 
examination ; 

(3) " Supplementary 1 ' recommendations — for work taken in the 
high school after the pupil's matriculation in the college or university 
— are not to be accepted in lieu of matriculation examinations ; 

(4) The status of every undergraduate student is probationary 
during his first year of residence in the University, and his final 
allowance of matriculation credit may depend upon his work during 
this probationary year ; 

(5) The scholarship records in the University of California of the 
first-year students from each of the accredited schools are kept in 
such a way as to show the scholarship standing of the school, as 
reflected by its representatives in the University ; and this record 
is made use of in determining the status of the school as a possible 
candidate for future accrediting. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 247 

the two views, " on the one hand, that education 
of women should be determined principally by 
their function in perpetuating the life of the race, 
and, on the other hand, that as the laws of mind 
are identical for the two sexes the education of 
women should be the same as that of men." 1 

1 Talbot, op. cit.y p. vii. Also, at p. viii : " So far then as the 
social and economic arrangements of society allot to men and 
women different tasks, so far must the educational machinery be 
developed differently for the two sexes." 

That Dean Talbot is by no means satisfied with the present 
opportunities offered to women is to be seen by her state- 
ment : — 

u The following summary is given of the changes which seem 
necessary if the four years of college life are to perform any real 
function in the education of a woman : — 

" 1 . The reconstruction of the physical training department, and 
an enlargement of its scope. 

"2. The modification of the social and domestic features of the 
college life. 

" 3. The development of the professional or expert attitude of 
mind on the part of the student. 

" 4. The extension of personal relations between the faculty and 
the students outside of the classroom. 

"5. The appointment of trained and practical experts in educa- 
tion to advise as to courses of study and methods of work and life. 

" 6. The introduction of new courses of study. 

"7. A juster recognition of women in academic and intellectual 
fields" (p. 236). 

As to 6, . . . " courses [which] would serve to introduce the 
scientific method into the vocation which most needs it ; that of 
directing household and family life" (p. 242). 



248 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The curriculum of the American university, as 
distinguished from that of the college, may be 
characterized as one even more liberal in spirit 
It is liberal in fact only as the resources of the 
particular institution enable it to live up to its 
aim to offer advanced courses in all departments 
of human learning. The instructions issued by 
the University of Colorado may fairly be taken as 
indicative of the spirit and policy of the better 
equipped institutions. 

Admission 

Graduates from any college or scientific school of good 
standing are admitted upon presentation of diploma and cer- 
tificate of good character. 

Upon entrance, the student confers with the Dean of the 
Graduate School regarding the selection of a chief subject of 
study ; the minors are elected on consultation with the profes- 
sor in charge of the major. 

Candidates for the degree Doctor of Philosophy must have 
a reading knowledge of both French and German. Candi- 
dates for the degree Master of Arts must have a reading 
knowledge of French or German, but the professor in charge 
of the major subject may require both French and German. 

Requirements for Degrees 

Candidates for the degree Master of Arts or Doctor of 
Philosophy must present credits for at least one year's resi- 
dence at this University, and evidence of having completed 



HIGHER EDUCATION 249 

a course of study approved by the Dean and Graduate Com- 
mittee. 

Master of Arts. — The work required is one full year. Six 
copies of the Master's thesis or dissertation, printed or type- 
written and bound, are to be placed in the University library. 

Doctor of Philosophy. — The work required is three years 
of residence, which shall include as a minimum, 5 semesters 
of 12 hours each and a thesis. The first two years maybe 
spent at other universities in actual residence ; or the first two 
years may be done here and the third spent in the preparation 
of a thesis at some approved university. 

The thesis for the Doctor's degree must show power in 
original investigation ; it is printed and one hundred and fifty 
copies placed in the University library for the use of the Uni- 
versity. 

Students applying credits from other universities should 
bring letters from their instructors showing quality and amount 
of work. The final examination covers all subjects presented 
for the degree, whether done here or elsewhere. 

Instruction 

Students admitted to the Graduate School may pursue any 
course in the College of Liberal Arts, College of Engineering, 
and professional schools for which they are qualified. 

The Graduate Faculty does not put hindrances in the way 
of mature students ; almost any reasonable program of study 
will be approved if it forms a consistent plan of work or is 
to be pursued with some definite aim. 

But courses will be counted towards a degree only when 
recommended for that purpose by the professors in charge 
of such courses. 



250 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The courses of study offered especially to graduate students 
may be grouped as follows : — 



I. 


Greek Language and Literature. 


II. 


Latin Language and Literature. 


III. 


Germanic Languages and Literature. 


IV. 


Romance Languages and Literatures. 


V. 


Literature (in English). 


VI. 


English Language. 


VII. 


Mathematics. 


VIII. 


Civil Engineering. 


IX. 


Electrical Engineering. 


X. 


Mechanical Engineering. 


XI. 


Physics. 


XII. 


Chemistry. 


XIII. 


Biology. 


XIV. 


Geology. 


XV. 


Philosophy. 


XVI. 


Psychology. 


XVII. 


Education. 


XVIII. 


History. 


XIX. 


Law. 


XX. 


Social Science. 


XXL 


Music. 



The degrees of Doctor of Philosophy and Doc- 
tor of Science from the better-class universities 
are held in high esteem. The character of the 
work demanded is well expressed by the Univer- 
sity of Michigan circular : " It is not intended 
that the doctor's degree shall be won merely by 



HIGHER EDUCATION 251 

faithful and industrious work for a prescribed time 
in some assigned course of study. The candidate 
must also evince ability to carry on independent 
research." The proof of this ability and the fruit 
of the student's work is the thesis. " The thesis 
is of great importance. It must exhibit credit- 
able literary workmanship, and a good command 
of the resources of expression, but its acceptance 
depends more upon its subject matter than upon 
its formal or rhetorical qualities. It must be an 
original contribution to scholarship or to scien- 
tific knowledge. The inquiry should be confined 
within narrow bounds. The treatment should be 
as concise as the nature of the subject permits, 
and show familiarity with the history of the prob- 
lem treated, with the literature bearing upon it, 
and with the latest methods of research appli- 
cable to it. Every thesis should contain a clear 
introductory statement of what it is proposed to 
establish or investigate, and likewise a final re- 
sume of results. It must be preceded by an ana- 
lytical table of contents, with page references, 
and a full list of the authorities made use of. 
The larger divisions and the more important 
minor divisions should be indicated by suitable 



252 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

headings. It is expected that the preparation 
of an acceptable thesis will usually require the 
greater part of an academic year." 

The average American student is fourteen years 
of age upon graduation from the elementary 
school, eighteen upon graduation from the high 
school, and twenty-two from college. If now 
he prepares for a profession, he is twenty-five 
or twenty-six upon completing his professional 
schooling. Several years are required in special- 
ization or in establishing himself in his pro- 
fession, so that he virtually reaches middle age 
before his professional training can be said to be 
completed. 1 To modify this condition, without 
sacrificing any of the interests of true education, 
has been the thought of several university leaders 
and the object of some experiments with the tra- 
ditional college course. The bachelor's degree 
is given to the student who, let us say, completes 
four years of three terms of twelve weeks, a total 

1 Of course, in many individual cases, this is not the schedule. 
A bright boy may graduate from elementary school at twelve, rush 
his preparatory work through in three years, graduate from college 
at nineteen, take a two-year law course, and " hang up his shingle " 
as he reaches his majority. But few, if any, can thus " short-cut " 
the route without missing along the way much that is necessary to 
a satisfactorily complete education. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 253 

of 180 college hours. Why not, it is asked, give 
him the opportunity of doing the same 180 hours 
of work in three years of four terms of twelve 
weeks? The question is answered both ways. 1 
Thus far, few institutions have been willing to 
commit themselves openly to a three-year course, 2 
though the exceptional student, insistent upon 
traveling faster than his colleagues, rarely fails to re- 
ceive the opportunity and encouragement to do so. 
Several universities gain the extra year for their 
students by so combining the work of the last col- 
legiate year and that of the first professional year 
as to reduce the length of the professional course. 

President Thwing expresses the conservative thought as fol- 
lows : " It is to be said that a year in one's life and in one's 

1 For a discussion of the length of the college course by Presi- 
dents Eliot, Harper, and Butler, and Dean West, see " Present Col- 
lege Questions," Appleton, 1903. 

2 To the contrary, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
for example, offers a five-year course leading to the degree of Bach- 
elor of Science, u designed to meet the needs of three different 
classes of students : — 

"First: Those who wish to complete in five years the work of 
two allied courses. 

"Second: Those who wish to combine with the work of a single 
professional course a larger proportion of humanistic studies and of 
work in general science. 

" Third: Those who wish to distribute the work of a single course 
over five years without undertaking additional required studies." 



254 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

professional career is of great value, and it is also to be said, 
and with emphasis, that a single year is not of value in compari- 
son with the value of one's professional service. It is far better to 
enrich the value of that service than to lengthen out the time of that 
service by a few months." ! President Harper opposed the prop- 
osition to reduce the course to three years, along these lines : — 

i. It is a mistaken supposition that the college course is 
university work. 

2. It is unnecessary to shorten the college course to pro- 
vide for an extension of the professional course. 

3. " The correct appreciation of the modern high school 
and its proper adjustment to the situation as a whole makes 
strongly against the proposed three-year course." 

4. " It would be followed immediately by an increase of 
requirements for admission to the first year of college work." 

5. It is based "upon the supposition that the essential 
thing is the time requirement." 

6. It should " be opposed because of its deleterious in- 
fluence upon the smaller colleges." 

7. " For a boy who enters college at the right age, sixteen 
or seventeen, less than four years is too short a time." 

8. It " ignores the culture value of the subjects in the first 
year of professional work." 

9. It " subordinates the college almost wholly to the pro- 
fessional school." 

10. " It is in general contrary to the drift of educational 
movements, and the very things which it proposes can easily 
be secured by other means." 2 

lu College Administration, 1 ' p. 10. 

2 William R. Harper, " The Trend in Higher Education," Chicago, 
1905, Chap. 22, The Length of the College Course. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 



255 



Germany 
At the German universities the spirit is such 
that the student "may study what he will, 
when he will, or need not study at all." No 
regular course of study is prescribed, each 
professor offering such courses of lectures as 
seem warranted. The student makes his selec- 
tion, not only from among the lectures at any 
one university, but from those at several. The 
best idea of the extent of the opportunity open 
to students may be gained from the following 
tabulation of the number of teachers of all grades 
lecturing in all the German universities during 
the winter session of 1910-1911. (The uni- 
versity year is divided into winter and summer 
semesters.) 



Faculty 



Evangelical Theology . . 
Catholic Theology . . . 

Law 

Medicine 

Philosophy 

Science and Mathematics 
Totals 



Ordinary 


Extraordinary 


Professors 


Professors 


Regular 


Honorary 


Regular 


Honorary 


I23 


4 


35 


I 


65 


6 


15 


— 


180 


17 


52 


I 


256 


35 


279 


I 


582 


52 


324 


I 


67 


9 


72 


4 


1273 


123 


777 



Privat- 

DOCENTS 



31 

22 
60 

495 

457 

49 

1114 



256 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The ordinary professors are highest in rank. The Privat- 
docent is peculiar to Germany. He "is the great source of 
vigor and renovation to her superior instruction. . . . The 
Privatdocent is an assistant to the professorate ; he is free to 
use, when the professors do not occupy them, the university 
lecture rooms, he gives lectures like the professors, and his 
lectures count as professors' lectures for those who attend them. 
His appointment is on this wise. A distinguished student 
applies to be made Privatdocent in a faculty. He produces 
certain certificates and performs certain exercises before two 
delegates named by the faculty, and this is called his Habili- 
tation. If he passes, the faculty names him Privatdocent. . . . 
He is then free to lecture on any of the matters proper to his 
faculty. He is on probation, he receives no salary whatever, 
and depends entirely on his lectures ; he has, therefore, every 
motive to exert himself." 1 

The extent of the work in a single university is to be seen 
by the following summary of the courses offered at Gottingen 
during the winter of 1 910-19 11 : — 

Theology 34 Natural Science ... 27 

Law 54 Agriculture and Bacteri- 

Medicine 95 ology 20 

Philosophy 14 Economics 6 

Mathematics .... 22 Geography 6 

Astronomy and Geology 11 History 15 

Physics 19 Languages 55 

Chemistry 30 Fine Arts 8 

Total 431 

1 Matthew Arnold, " Higher Schools and Universities in Ger- 
many," Macmillan, 1874, p. 155. 



HIGHER EDUCATION 257 

France 

At the French Universities the degree of 
licencie is conferred only upon examination. 
The candidate must qualify in one of the follow- 
ing series : — 

1. Philosophy: includes Latin translation, 
history of philosophy, general philosophy, psy- 
chology, logic, ethics, sociology, oral analysis of 
philosophical texts in German or in English. 

2. History and Geography : Latin translation, 
ancient history, medieval history, modern history, 
contemporary history, geography, analysis of 
text in history or geography in English or 
German. 

3. Classical languages and literatures : Greek, 
Latin, French. 

4. Modern languages and literatures : Latin 
translation, language chosen by candidate. 

England 

The English university student has large op- 
tions within well-defined limitations. For his 
B.A. degree he studies for three years or more, 
going up for examination when he deems him- 
self prepared. At Oxford, where there are four 



258 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

terms to the year, he must remain in residence 
at least twelve terms in order to qualify for the 
degree. He must then pass three successive 
groups of examinations: (1) Responsions, before 
the Masters of the schools ; (2) the First Public 
Examination, before the Moderators ; and (3) the 
Second Public examination, before the -Public 
Examiners. 

The University of London grants degrees to 
all persons who pass the prescribed examinations 
and pay the fees, whether they have prepared in 
a college or otherwise. For " internal " students 
the required study is 810 hours for the B.A. and 
1260 for the B.Sc. For matriculation, the stu- 
dent must pass in English, elementary mathe- 
matics, and one from each of the following 
groups: (1) a foreign language ; (2) history, geog- 
raphy, drawing; and (3) advanced mathematics, 
science. At the end of a year from matricula- 
tion he may take the Intermediate Arts exami- 
nation, qualifying in each of these five groups: 

(1) Latin or Greek language and history; 

(2) French or German or the other language of (1) ; 

(3) pure mathematics or applied mathematics or 
physics or chemistry or botany or logic ; (4) an- 



HIGHER EDUCATION 259 

other from (3), or history or Italian or Spanish ; 
(5) English literature and essay. Two years later 
he may come up for his degree, qualifying in 
one subject in each of the following groups : 
(1) Latin, Greek; (2) Latin, Greek, English, 
French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian, San- 
skrit, Hebrew; (3) Pure mathematics, applied 
mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, philoso- 
phy, economics ; (4) Latin, Greek, French, Ger- 
man, pure mathematics, applied mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, botany, modern history, geog- 
raphy, education. These regulations are for the 
" Pass " degree. There is also an elaborate sys- 
tem of " Honors " to be gained by showing special 
scholarship in single groups of subjects. 

Such institutions as Birmingham, Durham, 
Manchester, etc., however, more nearly resemble 
the American college than does either classic 
Oxford or Cambridge at one extreme or the 
London University with its licensing plan at 
the other. The regulations for the bachelor's 
degrees in arts and in science at Birmingham 
are typical, requiring three years of attendance 
on lectures. Also, "The work of candidates is 
estimated (1) by means of periodical exercises, 



260 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

class examinations, and inspection of laboratory 
notebooks throughout the session, and (2) by 
means of examinations at the end of the session. 
At the end of each session every undergraduate 
is required to present a certificate of qualifica- 
tion, stating that he has attended to the satisfac- 
tion of the professors concerned not less than 
two thirds of the lectures, laboratory and exercise 
classes, and that he has passed such class exami- 
nations and performed such other exercises as 
his teachers may prescribe in connection with 
their own courses, to the satisfaction of the 
Faculty, before being admitted to the University 
Examination." At Durham, " Candidates for 
the Modern B.A. Pass Examination are re- 
quired to keep nine terms, i.e. three academical 
years, and to pass an Intermediate Examination 
and a Final Examination." 

The Intermediate Examination subjects are : (1) Religious 
knowledge or alternative ; (2) English language and literature ; 
(3) English history ; (4) Latin or Greek ; (5) French ; (6) Ger- 
man ; (7) mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry). 

The Final Examination subjects are : (1) Religious knowledge 
or alternative ; (2) English language and literature ; (3) Latin or 
Greek; (4) French; (5) German; (6) modern history; (7) mathe- 
matics; (8) logic; (9) psychology; (10) education. 



CHAPTER XVI 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

" I have no hesitancy in declaring that the first and foremost 
duty of society, through the agency of the schools, is to make 
every boy and girl fit to make a living by means of some special 
knowledge or skill which society has need of." — Gillette, 
"Vocational Education," p. 95. 

" An efficient system of industrial education can accomplish 
three things : it can raise the general average of intelligence ; it 
can develop specialized talent ; and it can offer the opportunity 
for genius to find itself." — Person, "Industrial Education," p. 26. 

" The supreme thing after all is that men should be inducted 
into, not trained out of, the economic era in which they are 
called upon to live." — Herrick, "Commercial Education," 
p. 14. 

" No man, educated or uneducated, has a right 
to be useless. Most men will continue to earn and 
ought to earn in one way or another, the funds to 
pay their bills, and in this natural way will the 
world's work get done in the future as in the past. 
The education of all men, therefore, is, or should 
be, in a broad sense vocational, and the so-called 
learned professions are but other names for devel- 
oped industries." 1 " Vocational education, more or 

1 Davenport, op. cit., p. 15. 
261 



262 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

less unorganized and resting largely on native in- 
stincts and capacity, has always existed ; it tends 
to be organized under school conditions only 
where special demands or necessities exist ; and from 
the standpoint of social necessity, vocational edu- 
cation given by some agency is indispensable." 1 
We might characterize vocational education of 
to-day by saying that it is in a state of transfer 
from one agency to another. In the past, special- 
ized vocational training has been given chiefly 
through the home and through the apprentice 
system. Both of these agencies, under the stress 
of modern conditions, are rapidly failing as effi- 
cient trainers along vocational lines. Society is 
now looking toward its schools to take up the 
work which these other agencies are perforce 
abandoning. " In one form or another, . . . how 
to combine, in one educative process, the advan- 
tages of the school and the advantages of the 
apprentice system . . . has been the problem of 
all our education for special occupations in the 
past half-century." 2 

That this problem is far from a solution goes 

1 Snedden, op. cit., p. 13. 

2 Brown, " Government by Influence," p. 48. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 263 

without the saying. It is comparatively easy to 
propound theoretical propositions in regard to the 
relation which the schools ought to bear to voca- 
tional training, 1 but as we look about upon the 
actual work now being done, we see that it is the 
future alone which holds in store the solution to 
this vexing fundamental problem. We must 
agree that " a chasm exists between our educational 

1 For example : " The first general principle to be observed is 
that the curriculum should have such subject matter and be so or- 
ganized as to promote the professional esprit. Besides making the 
subject matter relate directly to the career for which the student is 
training, this result may be accomplished in three ways. First, the 
curriculum of the industrial school should have a distinct organiza- 
tion separate from the organization of schools with other aims with 
which it may be associated. This does not mean that, for a few 
subjects, students of the two schools may not attend the same 
classes ; but such identity should be avoided as far as possible. . . . 
Second, the corps of instructors of the industrial school should be 
as distinct as possible, and should be thoroughly trained for instruc- 
tion in technical subjects. . . . Third, the influence of the curricu- 
lum should be disciplinary in its own way, not only as to its influence 
on the methods of teaching and studying, but also as making for 
enthusiasm for work on the part of the student. 

" The second general principle to be proposed is that the subject 
matter of the curriculum should be practical and technical. It should 
be descriptive rather than historical, practical rather than theoreti- 
cal. . . . 

" The third general principle is a more special statement of the 
second : the curriculum should be so comprehensive and flexible as 
to afford the student direct training for some specific occupation." — ■ 
Person, op. cit., p. 69 et seq. 



264 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

system and our modern industrial life, and indus- 
trial education ought to bridge it." : Here we 
may only take account, in a very general way, of 
the attempts already made to bridge this chasm. 
Before the advent of compulsory education in 
the United States the boy or girl was free to 
leave school whenever his interest in money 
making became acute or the condition of the 
family exchequer seemed to demand it. There 
was no obvious connection between the elemen- 
tary school with its satisfactory curriculum of the 
three R's and the training for specialized voca- 
tions. The school gave sufficient training for 
every employment of a general character. The 
enforcement of compulsory education laws now 
presents us with the problem of the boy who at 
the age of twelve shares with his parents the 
feeling that he has had ample schooling for the 
ordinary affairs of life as he expects to meet them 
and who resents remaining two years more in 
order to pursue, to him, a highly unpractical 
course of study. What to do with this boy — and 
his name is legion — is probably the furthest from 
solved of all the series of problems concerning 
vocational education. 

1 Dean, op. cit., p. 319. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 265 

" The distinction between technical and cul- 
tural studies, at no point absolute, becomes more 
obscured in the higher stages of education." 1 
Putting it the other way around, the problem 
may be most clearly stated as it concerns the 
lowest grade of schools; we might therefore ex- 
pect it to have reached there its solution. But 
the vastly greater number of pupils involved at 
this stage has made it stupendous and complex, 
so that by comparison the work of the university 
in providing professional education is simplicity 
itself. Thus the problem, as nearly as it is at 
present understood, is practically solved in its 
highest and narrowest reaches, and practically 
untouched at its lowest and broadest level. 

It is, then, at the secondary stage that we find 
at present the greatest activity. The past few 
years have yielded a recognition of the claims of 
high school pupils to a specialized training. 2 
Hence do we find high schools in all parts of the 
country, especially in the large cities, which offer 

1 Brown, "The Making of Our Middle Schools," p. 461. 

2 " The remarkable development of our industrial and commer- 
cial schools represents the most conspicuous educational contri- 
bution of the United States. The freedom of choice by which a 
student upon entering the high school may, without the slightest 



266 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to their students differentiated courses aimed to 
fit them for special commercial * and general in- 
dustrial careers. 

Los Angeles, in its Polytechnic High School, conducts 
eighteen special courses, as follows : — 
i. Commerce. 5. Surveying. 

2. Domestic Economics. 6. Art. 

3. Electricity. 7. Mechanical Draughting. 

4. Mineralogy. 8. Architecture. 
9. Normal Course in Manual Training. 

10. Pattern Making. 13. Foundry. 

11. Dressmaking and Millinery. 14. Cabinet Making. 

12. Forging. 15. Machine Shop. 

16. College Preparatory — Stanford. 

1 7. College Preparatory — University of California. 

(a) For matriculation in mechanical courses. 

(b) For matriculation in commercial, scientific, and 

agricultural courses. 

18. Chemistry. 

Even a curriculum aimed specifically to prepare 
pupils for vocations must fall short of complete 
realization so long as only the theoretical aspects 
of the subject are presented. The nearest to a 
solution — probably we should say the solution — 

loss of standing, elect any one of three or four possible courses has 
been of incalculable service to the country." — Professor L. S. 
Rowe, in Commissioners 1 Report, 1909, p. 326. 

1 See Herrick, op. cit., pp. 350-370, for select bibliography on com- 
mercial education throughout the world. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 267 

of the problem has been attained at the Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati, where Professor Herman 
Schneider "more than ten years ago saw the 
fallacy of trying to train a young man to do 
something without actually making him work 
at it. His plan was first applied to technical 
students in the University of Cincinnati and is 
this : In connection with the engineering de- 
partment of the university there has been in- 
augurated a system of cooperation between the 
shops of the city and the university, whereby 
the shop takes charge of the practical training of 
the students and the university teaches the theory. 
" By this method the university is relieved of 
the necessity of equipping its laboratories with 
expensive machinery, which in the course of ten 
or fifteen years may become obsolete, and the 
students are getting a practical training such as 
no school can possibly furnish. They are work- 
ing in actual commercially operated plants, the 
hum of industry is on every hand, and push and 
go are necessary in order to hold one's place in 
the shop organization." 1 

1 W. B. Hunter, " The Fitchburg Plan of Industrial Education," 
Fitchburg, p. 3. 



268 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



This plan has recently been instituted by the 
Fitchburg, Mass., High School, with every prospect 
of success. Only when this principle of coordinat- 
ing the theoretical of the school with the practical 
of the shop or office is successfully applied to the 
elementary grade of instruction may we hope for 
complete solution of the vocational problem. 

It remains now to present detailed schedules 

of vocational courses of various grades here and 

abroad. 

IN THE UNITED STATES 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Commercial 
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 
New York City 
First Year 



Required 



Periods 

per 
Week 



Elective 



Periods 

PER 

Week 



English 

German, French, or Spanish . 

Algebra 

Biology 1 (with especial refer- 
ence to materials of com- 
merce) 

Business Knowledge and Prac- 
tice 2 

Drawing (second half year) . 

Physical Training 1 . . . . 

Music 



1 Including Physiology. 

2 Including Local Industries and Government of the City of New York 

Business Writing 

Business Arithmetic, Business Forms, and Methods .... 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



269 



Second Year 



Required 


Periods 

PER 

Week 


Elective 


Periods 

per 
Week 


English 

German, French, or Spanish . 

Plane Geometry 

Chemistry (with especial ref- 
erence to materials of com- 
merce) 

History 1 (with especial refer- 
ence to economic history 
and geography) .... 

Stenography 

Drawing and Art Study . . 

Physical Training .... 


3 

4 
3 

4 

3 
3 
2 
2 

24 


German, French, or Spanish 
Bookkeeping and Business 

Forms 

Business Arithmetic . . . 
Commercial Geography . . 


4 

3 

z 
1 



1 First half year, Beginning of Nations to 1300 a.d. ; second half year, Modern History 
to 1750. 

Third Year 



English 

German, French, or Spanish . 

Geometry and Algebra 1 . . 

Physics 

History 2 (with especial refer- 
ence to materials of com- 
merce) 

Drawing and Art Study . . 

Physical Training .... 



German, French, or Spanish. 
Bookkeeping and Business 

Arithmetic 

Stenography and Typewriting 
Drawing and Art Study . . 
Commercial Geography . . 



1 In the second half year, students may elect additional Stenography and Typewriting 
or Bookkeeping in place of the second course in Mathematics, or may give double time 
to Mathematics by omitting either Stenography or Bookkeeping. 

2 First half year, English and Colonial History, 1620 to 1750. Second half year, 
Modern History (England and the Continent), 1750 to present time. 



270 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Fourth Year 



Required 


Periods 

per 
Week 


Elective 


Periods 

per 
Week 


English 

German, French, or Spanish . 

Economics and Economic 
Geography 

History of the United States 
(with especial reference to 
industrial and constitutional 
aspects) 

Physical Training .... 


3 
4 

4 

4 
2 

17 


A Foreign Language . . . 

Advanced Chemistry . . . 

Economic Biology .... 

Trigonometry and Solid 
Geometry 

Elementary Law and Com- 
mercial Law ! 

Advanced Bookkeeping, Busi- 
ness Correspondence, and 
Office Practice 

Stenography and Typewriting 

Drawing and Art Study . . 

Modern Industrialism . . . 


4 
4 
4 

4 

4 

4 
4 
4 

1 



1 Students who do not elect law in the fourth year may receive instruction in Commer- 
cial Law in connection with Advanced Bookkeeping. 

In order to graduate from the High School 
of Commerce a student must have studied at 
least one foreign language for at least three years, 
have accomplished satisfactorily all the other re- 
quired work, and have taken a sufficient number 
of elective studies so that the total amount of 
required and elective studies shall equal 3000 
periods of work requiring preparation, and shall 
extend over not less than three years and not 
more than six years. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



271 



Industrial 

BOSTON, MASS., HIGH SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL ARTS 

Program of Studies 

First Year 



Required 



English 

History 

Mathematics, Applied Arithme- 
tic, Algebra 

Art 

Sewing 

Cooking and Housewifery . . 

Choral Practice 

Physical Training 



Periods 

per 
Week 



Elective 



Periods 

per 
Week 



Second Year 



English 

History 

Mathematics, Plane Geometry 

Chemistry 

Art 

Choral Practice 

Physical Training 



Dressmaking . . 
Millinery . . . 
Household Science 



Third Year 



English 

History, Civil Government . . 

Physics 

Art 

Choral Practice 

Physical Training 


4 
4 
4 
5 
1 
2 
20 


Dressmaking 

Millinery » 

Household Science . . . 


10 
10 
10 

10 



272 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Fourth Year 



Required 



English 

Household Accounts, one half 

year 

Home Nursing, one half year . 

Economics 

Biology and Sanitation . . . 

Art 

Choral Practice 

Physical Training 



Periods 

per 
Week 



Elective 



Dressmaking . . 
Millinery . . . 
Household Science 



Periods 

per 
Week 



CINCINNATI, OHIO 
First Year 



Boys' Industrial 

English 4 

Arithmetic and 

Algebra .... 4 
Industrial Geog- 

graphy 4 

Drawing 4 

Turning, Pattern and 

Cabinet Making . 16 

Phys. Train'g (Op.) . 2 



Girls' Art 

English 4 

Algebra 4 

Botany or Zoology . 5 

Art 10 

Physical Training . . 2 

Music 1 

Elocution 1 



Girls' Industrial 



English . . , 
Arithmetic and 

Algebra 
Applied Art 
Cooking . 
Sewing 
Physical Training 
Music .... 



Second Year 



English 4 

Applied Mathematics 4 

Physics 4 

Drawing 4 

Foundry Forge and 

Machine .... 16 
Physical Training 

(Op.) 2 



English 4 

Geometry 5 

French 4 

Art 10 

History (Ancient) . . 4 

Physical Training . . 2 

Music 1 

Elocution 1 



English .... 

Geometry and 
Arithmetic . . 

Chemistry . . . 

Applied Art . . . 

Cooking and House- 
hold Arts . . . 

Millinery and Dress- 
making .... 

Physical Training . 

Music 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



273 



Third Year 



Boys' Industrial 



Girls' Art 



Girls' Industrial 



Chemistry . . . .10 

English 2 

Drawing 10 

Applied Mathematics, 

Shop Problems 

and Practice. . . 10 
Cooperative plan : 

alternate weeks in 

shop and school. 



English 4 

French 4 

Art 10 

History (Med. and 

Mod.) ...... 4 

History of Art ... 2 

Physical Training . . 2 

Music 1 

Elocution 1 



English 4 

Physiology .... 4 
Applied Art .... 5 
Elect Specialty ... 20 
Millinery, etc. 
Dressmaking, Tailor- 
ing and Art Needle- 
work ; Home Eco- 
nomics ; Office Train- 
ing; Salesmanship. 



Fourth Year 



History (Industrial 
of U. S.) & Civics . s 

Shop Science and 

Shop Practice . . 10 

Drawing 10 

App. Mathematics 
and Shop Prob- 
lems 10 

Cooperative Plan : 
Alternate weeks 
in shop and school. 



English 4 

French 4 

Art 10 

History of Art and 

Art Criticism ... 4 
Physiology & Hygiene 4 



American History 

and Civics ... 5 

English 4 

Applied Art .... 5 
Elect Specialty ... 20 



There is also a commercial course; and of four 
academic courses, leading to colleges and profes- 
sional schools, one is in Domestic Science. 



274 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



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276 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



HIGHER SCHOOLS 

Commercial 

THE AMOS TUCK SCHOOL 

Dartmouth College 

Three years of undergraduate work must include 

(a) One year English composition ; 

{b) Two years French, German, or Spanish ; 

(c) Two years additional of language other than English, 
modern or classical : — 

(a) One year history ; 

(e) Two years economics. 

This is followed by two years in the School in one of 
several optional, but related courses : General Business, Foreign 
Commerce, Banking, Transportation, Insurance, Accounting, etc. 

The required work in the Consular Service Course is : — 

First Year 



First Semester 


Hours 


Second Semester 


Hours 


Accounting 

French, German, or Spanish 
Economic Geography . . 

Statistics 

American Government 
Money and Banking . . 
National Industrial Effi- 
ciency 


2 
2 

4 
2 

3 
3 

2 


International Law . . . 
French, German, or Spanish 
Resources and Industries 

of the United States . 

Statistics 

American Diplomacy . . 
Commercial History and 

Policy 


3 

2 

4 
2 

3 

3 




18 


17 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Second Year 



277 



First Semester 


Hours 


Second Semester 


Hours 


French, German, or Spanish 
Commercial Law . . . 
Business Management . . 
Foreign Commerce . . . 
Foreign Exchange . . . 
Advanced Commercial 

Geography .... 
Thesis (Consular Service) . 


2 
2 
2 
2 
I 

2 
2 

13 


French,German, or Spanish 
Commercial Law . . . 
Maritime Law .... 
Spanish-America and the 

Far East 

Thesis (Consular Service) 


2 
2 
2 

2 

6 
14 



The ideals for the higher school of commerce stated by the 
Director of the School at the University of Wisconsin, where 
the experiment was inaugurated in 1900, are : — 

1. Familiarity with the nature and working of the industrial 
organism ; 

2. Acquaintance with articles of commerce and industrial 
processes ; 

3. Knowledge of various branches of law ; 

4. Training in languages ; 

5. Knowledge of physical and chemical sciences. 

Says Professor Jenks : " In current discussion, in the press 
and elsewhere, many of the more fundamental principles of 
commerce and the training which is requisite in order to enable 
our young men to cope with the problems which may arise in 
their business, have been adequately considered. It is gen- 
erally conceded that besides the principles of accounting and 
cost keeping referred to, one should possess a fair knowledge 
of foreign exchange, a comprehensive outlook over the most 



278 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

important markets for the purchase and sale of leading staple 
products, a reasonable understanding of shipping by water and 
rail routes, and the relative costs of different routes and classes 
of freights, an insight into the fundamental principles of com- 
mercial law, a sufficient knowledge of the languages of the 
countries in which one is to work, besides a detailed knowledge 
of the goods to be handled and the special requirements of the 
individual business, which can be learned, of course, only in 
the business itself." l 

Technical 

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 
Boston, Mass. 

Regular four-year courses of study leading to the 
degree of Bachelor of Science are offered in the 
following branches of science and engineering: — 
I. Civil Engineering. 
II. Mechanical Engineering. 

III. Mining Engineering and Metallurgy. 

IV. Architecture. 
V. Chemistry. 

VI. Electrical Engineering. 
VII. Biology. 
VIII. Physics. 
IX. General Science. 
X. Chemical Engineering. 

1 Jeremiah W. Jenks, " Citizenship and the Schools," Holt, 
1909, p. 134. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



279 



XI. Sanitary Engineering. 
XII. Geology and Geodesy. 

XIII. Naval Architecture and Marine Engi- 

neering. 

XIV. Electrochemistry. 

In most of these courses distinct options are 
offered in the later years which enable the stu- 
dent to concentrate more of his attention upon 
some one side of his profession. In no case, how- 
ever, is the specialization carried so far as to pre- 
clude a thorough training in all the fundamental 
branches of the subject. The more important of 
these options are as follows : — 



Civil Engineering. 



Mechanical Engineering. 



Mining Engineering and 
Metallurgy. 

Architecture. 

Chemistry. 

Biology. 



)l . Hydraulic Engineering. 
2. Railroad Engineering. 

Marine Engineering. 

Locomotive Construction. 

Mill Engineering. 

Heating and Ventilating Engineering. 

Steam Turbine Engineering. 
fl. Mining and Metallurgy, 
<2. Metallurgy. 
[3. Mining Geology. 

{I. Architecture. 
2. Architectural Engineering. 

Analytical and Industrial Chemistry. 
Sanitary and Municipal Chemistry. 
Physical Chemistry. 

(I. Anatomy and Physiology. 
2. Sanitary and Industrial Biology. 



I 



280 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Physics. 

Geology and Geodesy. 



1. Chemistry. 

2. Mathematics. 

1. Geology. 

2. Geodesy. 



Agricultural 

NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
Cornell University 

Regular course of four years leads to degree of Bachelor 
of Science in Agriculture. 

The required subjects are : — 



First Year 


Second Year 




First 
Half 


Second 
Half 




First 
Half 


Second 
Half 


English 

Botany 

Chemistry .... 
Invertebrate Zoology 
Vertebrate Zoology . 
Entomology . . . 
Drawing .... 


3 
3 
6 

2 
2 


3 

3 
5 

3 

2 


Geology or Physical 
Geography . . . 

Chemistry .... 

Soils 

Physiology of Do- 
mestic Animals . 

Physics 

Third Ye 
Political Science . 


3 

6 

5 


3 
3 

3 
3 




16 


16 


14 

\R 

3 


12 

3 



The remainder of the work is made up of electives, at least 
two thirds of which must be taken in the College of Agricul- 
ture. These elective courses are in the following subjects : — 



Botany 

Veterinary Medicine 

Agricultural Chemistry 

Soils 

Plant Physiology 

Experimental Plant Breeding 



Farm Crops 
Horticulture 
Farm Mechanics 
Plant Pathology 
Entomology 
Zoology 



Animal Husbandry 
Poultry Husbandry 
Rural Economy 
Drawing 
Rural Art 
House Economics 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 281 

One hundred and twenty hours' work in eight semesters is 
required for the degree. 

"At present much of the agricultural instruction in the 
college is of secondary character. This has been made neces- 
sary because the secondary schools have hitherto neglected 
to give instruction in the subject of agriculture, and the col- 
leges have been compelled to receive their students directly 
from the elementary or rural schools and prepare them for 
the real collegiate work. But since the secondary schools are 
beginning to take up the work of instruction in agriculture 
that they are best qualified to impart, the colleges are grad- 
ually raising their entrance requirements, and are discontinuing 
the strictly secondary work." 1 

Professional 

The State has not yet come to the point of giving education 
in the "learned" professions, nor is it likely to do so — ob- 
viously it could not conduct schools of theology. For the 
sake of completeness, however, a typical program in each of 
these three professions is appended. 

" Students taking full courses in theology very generally have 
a college degree ; of those in law probably one fourth have a 
college degree, and in medicine the proportion is much 
smaller, although a few medical schools now require a college 
degree, or its equivalent, for matriculation. In dentistry and 
pharmacy a college graduate is exceptional." 2 

"All the professional schools of a university ought to re- 
quire the preliminary degree of Bachelor of Arts, or of Science, 
for admission ; and only when this requirement has been suc- 

1 Bricker, op. cit., p. 6. 

2 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1909, p. 1030. 



282 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



cessfully enforced will the unorganized group of separate de- 
partments which now passes for a university in the United 
States be really converted into a true university." 1 

Theology 

PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (PRESBYTE- 
RIAN) 

The course of study occupies some one thousand four hun- 
dred and forty hours of instruction, and the accomplishment 
of the whole of this course is required for graduation. It is 
designed to cover three years of residence ; and the courses 
of instruction which enter into it have been arranged with that 
end in view. This arrangement, which yields a regular weekly 
attendance upon classroom work of sixteen hours for three 
years of approximately thirty weeks each, is called " The Reg- 
ular Course," and the students are strongly advised to adopt 
it. The following schedule embodies 



The Regular Course 








First Year 

Hours 

Hebrew 5 


General Introduction to Apologetics > 
Theism 






I 

2 


Introduction to the Old Testament . 






1 
2- 


Old Testament History .... 
General Introduction to the New Testament 






1* 

I 


Exegesis of Paul's Epistles 

Prolegomena to Theology and Theology Prop< 

English Bible 


IT 




I 
2 
I 



1 Eliot, op. cit., p. 41. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



283 



Hours 

Homiletics : Theory 1 

Homiletics : Practice [1] 

Elocution [1] 

16 

Second Year 



Evidences of Christianity 

Introduction to the Old Testament . 

The Poetical Books of the Old Testament 

Gospel History .... 

Biblical Theology of the Old Testament 

Church History .... 

Anthropology and Christology 

Ecclesiastical Theology . 

English Bible .... 

Homiletics : Theory 

Homiletics : Practice 

Missions [alternate years] 

City Visitation .... 



2 

2 

3 

2 

1 

1 
1 

M 
[1] 

H 
16 



Third Year 



Christian Ethics and Christian Sociology .... 5 
Introduction to the Prophetical Books of the Old Testa- 
ment 1 

Exegesis of the Prophetical Books of the Old Testament 1 

Apostolic History 2 

Biblical Theology of the New Testament .... 2 

Church History 3 

Soteriology and Eschatology 2 

Pastoral Theology 1 

English Bible . 1 



284 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Hours 

Homiletics : Theory 1 

Homiletics : Practice [1] 

Missions [alternate years] [1] 

16 

Nevertheless, the hours of classroom work have been so 
adjusted, that if, for any reason, it seems best that four years 
should be occupied in accomplishing the course of study 
prescribed for graduation, this may be conveniently done. 

Law 
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY LAW SCHOOL 

Candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) are 
required to pursue courses which amount to twenty-six (26) 
hours of lectures weekly. These may be completed in two 
years with thirteen hours' work per week for each year, or 
divided over a longer period as the student may determine. 
If the work is taken entirely in the evening, thirty (30) hours 
weekly are required, distributed over three years with ten hours 
per week. 

The courses offered are in the following subjects : — 

First Year Second and Third Year 

* Contracts * Equity Jurisdiction 

* Torts Trusts 

* Property Equity Pleading 
Code of Civil Procedure Mortgages 
Personal Property Suretyship 

* Common Law Pleading Advanced Property 
Sales Partnership 
Agency Quasi-Contracts 
Statute of Frauds Bailments and Carriers 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 285 

First Year Second and Third Year 

Criminal Law Corporations 

Damages Insurance 

* Evidence 

* Bills and Notes 

Wills and Administration 
Conflict of Laws 
Constitutional Law 
International Law 
Patents 
Bankruptcy 
Admiralty- 
Public Service Companies 
New Jersey Practice 
Practice Courses : Surrogate's Court Practice. 

Preparation for Trial and Trial of Civic 

Actions. 
Pleading and Election of Remedies under 

the Code. 
Evidence. 
Subjects marked with a (*) are required. Others may be 
selected by the student, subject to approval by the Dean. In 
case any subject selected should be begun, but not completed, 
in any one year, the continuation of such subject must be taken 
in the following year. 

Medicine 

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

The course of instruction extends over a period of four 
years, with one session in each year, beginning on the last 
Friday of September and ending on the third Wednesday in June. 



286 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The course may be said to be divided into two periods of 
two years each : the first period devoted to the fundamental 
medical sciences, Chemistry, Anatomy, Physiology, Bacteriology, 
Pharmacology, and Pathology, including also Physical Educa- 
tion; the second period to the clinical subjects, Medicine, 
Surgery, Obstetrics, and the specialties. 

First Period 

The subjects of the first two years have been arranged 
according to a modification of the concentration system. By 
this system the student is enabled to concentrate his energy 
upon one or two subjects, and must master these before he is 
allowed to continue the course. Thus the first year is devoted 
chiefly to anatomy, including embryology, normal histology, 
and osteology, and to physiological chemistry, and bacteriology. 

The subjects of the second year follow in logical sequence 
those of the year preceding. The time of the second year is 
thus given over largely to physiology, pathology, pharmacology, 
and applied anatomy. In addition to these the work of the 
second year includes a course in physical diagnosis. 

Instruction upon the subjects of the first two years is almost 
entirely practical, so that the greater part of the student's time 
is spent in the laboratories. In the new laboratories of 
Pathology, Physiology, and Pharmacology, which were opened 
in June, 1904, and in the bacteriological section of the labora- 
tory of Hygiene, as well as in the older laboratories of Gross 
and Minute Anatomy, the students of this department are 
afforded unsurpassed facilities for practical work in these funda- 
mental subjects. 

Second Period 

With the beginning of the third year the student enters upon 
the second period, which covers the third and fourth years, 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



287 



and is devoted almost exclusively to instruction in the so-called 
clinical subjects — Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics, and the 
specialties. There is no sharp dividing line between the work 
of the third and fourth years, so that the courses in the clinical 
subjects may be said to cover a period of two years. 

IN GERMANY 
SECONDARY 

Technical 
SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART 



KAISERSLAUTERN 

Woodworking Course 



Year 



German Language 

Bookkeeping 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Estimating Costs 

Freehand Drawing 

Drawing from Casts and Nature . . . \ 

Ornamental Forms 

Geometrical Drawing 

Projection and Shading 

Perspective 

Architectural and Ornamental Drawing . 
Practical Work 



' 1 


2 


4 


4 


4 


— 


— 


2 


8 


— 


— 


4 


2 


— 


4 


— 


— 


4 


— 


12 


22 


18 



2 

14 
18 



Similar courses are given in Ironworking, Stonecarving, Wood- 
carving, Chasing and Engraving, and Painting. 1 

1 For time-tables, see Report of Commissioner of Labor, Wash- 
ington, 1902, p. 909. 



288 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Commercial 

OEFFENTLICHE HANDELSLEHRANSTALT 

Leipzig 

General course, three years 



Required 



German 

English Language and Correspondence . . 
French Language and Correspondence . . 

Mathematics 

Mercantile Arithmetic 

Physics 

Technology 

Chemistry 

Warenkunde (materials of commerce) 
General and Commercial Geography . . . 
General and Commercial History .... 
Laws of Commerce and Exchange .... 
Office Wcrk, Correspondence and Bookkeeping 

Economics 

Penmanship 

Shorthand 

Gymnastics 

Elbctives 

Italian 

Spanish 



1 


2 


4 


3 


5 


4 


5 


4 


3 


3 


5 


3 


2 


2 


— 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


2 


— 


3 


2 


2 


2 


I 


2 


2 


— 


2 


— 


— 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 289 



HIGHER EDUCATION 
Commercial 

HIGHER COMMERCIAL SCHOOL 
Berlin 

Principal divisions of subjects : — 

1. Political Economy. 

2. Law. 

3. Materials of commerce ; physics, chemistry, technology, 
industrial hygiene, etc. 

4. Methods of Commercial Instruction (for those preparing 
for commercial teach erships). 

5. Languages : English, French, Spanish, Italian, Russian, 
German. 

Professional 
See p. 255. 



290 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 









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VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



291 



HIGHER 

Agricultural 

INSTITUTE NATIONAL AGRONOMIQUE 
Paris 



Courses : — 

Rural economics 

Physics and meteorology 

Geology applied to Agriculture 

Chemistry applied to Agricul- 
ture 

Technical Agriculture 

Biology of vegetables culti- 
vated in France and colonies 

Zoology 

Mathematics 

Mechanics 

Sylviculture 

Rural legislation and adminis- 
trative law 

Zootechny 

Viticulture 

Colonial cultivation 

Anatomy and physiology 



Agricultural forestry 

Graphical drawing 

Analytic chemistry 

Hippology 

Political economy 

Bookkeeping 

Applied mathematics 

Arboriculture 

Horticulture 

Vegetal pathology 

Pisciculture 

Organic chemistry applied to 

agricultural products 
Microbiology 



Technical 
ECOLE CENTRALE DES ARTS ET MANUFACTURES 

Paris 
Courses : — 

Civil engineering 

Applied mechanics 

Mechanical construction 



Public works 
Industrial physics 
Railroads 



292 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Steam engines Applied hygiene 

Analytic chemistry General mechanics 

Mining Descriptive geometry 

Industrial chemistry General physics 

Industrial electricity General chemistry 

General metallurgy Analytical mathematics 

Siderurgy Mineralogy 

Technical chemistry Geology 

Industrial legislation Architecture 

Metal Construction 



Professional 

UNIVERSITY OF PARIS 

Medicine 

Clinics, throughout the mornings : medical ; mental pathol- 
ogy ; diseases of children ; skin diseases ; diseases of the nervous 
system ; therapeutics ; surgical obstetrics ; ophthalmological, 
gynecological, and infant surgery ; obstetrics. 

Courses : — 
First Year : Winter. — Histology, physics, anatomy, bio- 
logical chemistry. 
Summer. — Physics, physiology, histology, 
chemistry. 
Second Year : Winter. — Histology, physics, anatomy, physi- 
ology, external pathology. 
Summer. — Internal and external pathology, 
topographical anatomy, histol- 
ogy, chemistry. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



293 



Third Year : Winter, — Surgical pathology, bacteriology, 

pathological anatomy, obstetrics, 
internal and external pathology, 
experimental pathology, medi- 
cal pathology. 
Summer. — External pathology, obstetrics, pa- 
thological anatomy, bacteriol- 
ogy, general pathology. 

Fourth Year : Winter. — Therapeutics, medical law, hy- 
giene, pharmacology. 
Summer. — Hygiene, history of medicine, 
pharmacology. 



Practical Work 

Winter; Dissection, pathological anatomy, bacteriology. 
Summer: Biological physics, biological chemistry, histology, 
pathological chemistry, operative medicine, 
' obstetrics. 



Courses : — 
First Year : 



Second Year 



Third Year 



Law 

Roman law, civil law, general history of French 
law, political economy, elements of Constitu- 
tional law, personal rights. 

Civil law, administrative law, criminal law, 
political economy, Roman law, international 
public law. 

Civil law, commercial law, civil procedure, in- 
ternational private law, industrial legislation, 
public law, colonial legislation, maritime law, 
financial legislation. 



294 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Theology 

INSTITUT CATHOLIQUE DE PARIS 

Theology : General dogmatics, special dogmatics, fundamental 
moral theology, sacred scripture, ecclesiastical his- 
tory, Christian sources and patristic theology, oriental 
languages. 
Canonical Law : Decretals, public ecclesiastical law, history of 

canonical law. 
Philosophy : Logic and metaphysics, psychology, ethics (gen- 
eral, individual, social), history of philosophy. 
There is, in addition, one faculty in Law, one in Letters, and 
one in Science. 

Protestant theology is given by the Faculte libre de theologie 
protestante. 

IN ENGLAND 

SECONDARY 

Technical 

MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ART 
Leicester 
Gives tuition to three classes of students : — 
Craftsmen, to make workmen better workmen ; General 
Students, for the cultivation of observation, appreciation, and 
knowledge of art ; and Teachers, to qualify students who are, 
or intend to become, teachers to give instruction in art. 

Courses are from one to three years, day and evening, as 
follows : — 

i. For architects, builders, and others connected with 
building trades. Three years. 

2. For lithographic artists. Two years. 

3. For bookbinders. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 295 

4. For typographers. 

5. For jewelers and metal workers. 

6. For embroiderers and lace makers. 

7. For modelers, plasterers, etc. 

8. For house painters and decorators. 

9. For woodcarvers, frame makers, etc. 

10. For designers, stained glass workers, etc. 

11. For draughtsmen, landscape and life painters. 

12. General art course. 

13. For teachers of drawing. 

HIGHER 

Commercial 

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER 

Degrees of B. Com. and M. Com. Courses to be pursued 
at least three years. 
Must satisfy in : — 

1. Political Economy. 

2. Geography. 

3. Modern History. 

4. A modern language. 

5 . Organization of industry and commerce. 

6. Accounting. 

7. Commercial law. 

8. One or more special subjects from a large group in 

pure and applied science, economics, etc. 

Technical 

UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM 

Three-year course in Pure Science. 

Student must qualify at the end of the first year in three of : — 



296 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

1. Pure mathematics. 

2. Physics. 

3. Chemistry. 

4. Elementary Biology (Zoology and Botany). 

In the second and third years he takes one principal and two 
subsidiary subjects or two principal subjects from the following : 

Principal subjects, studied for two years : — 
Mathematics, pure and applied Botany 
Physics Physiology 

Chemistry Anatomy and Anthropology 

Geology Biology and Chemistry of fer- 

Zoology mentation 

Subsidiary subjects, usually studied for one year : — 
Pure mathematics Zoology 

Applied mathematics Physiology 

Elementary pure and applied Logic 

mathematics Psychology 

Physics Metallurgy 

Chemistry Mining 

Geology Engineering 

Botany Chemistry of fermentation 

The degree of B.Sc. in Applied Science is given on a four- 
year course, related somewhat to the foregoing. The student 
has choice of three general groups : — 

I. Engineering, in either 

(a) Mechanical, 

(b) Civil, 

(c) Electrical. 
II. Metallurgy. 

III. Mining. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



297 



Professional 

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER 



First Year : Winter. 
Summer. 



Second Year : Winter. 

Summer. 
Third Year : Winter. 



Summer. — 



Fourth Year : Winter. — 
Summer. — 

Fifth Year : Winter. — 

Summer. — 



Medicine 

— Inorganic Chemistry, Physics, Zool- 

ogy, Botany. 

— Elementary Anatomy (including 

dissection) . Elementary Or- 
ganic Chemistry, Bio-Chemistry. 

— Anatomy, Physiology. 

— Anatomy, Histology, Physiology. 

— Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacol- 

ogy, Pathology, Practical Surgery. 

Practical Surgery, Therapeutics and 
Practical Pharmacy, Pathology, 
Hygiene. 

Medicine, Surgery, Pathology. 

Obstetrics, Ophthalmology, Mental 
diseases, diseases of the larynx. 

Medicine, Operative Surgery, Gyn- 
ecology, Infectious diseases. 

Forensic medicine, Practical Toxi- 
cology, Diseases of Children, of 
Skin, of Ear, Tropical diseases. 



Law 

For LL.B. degree, two examinations must be passed, the 
first after one year in attendance ; the final after two years 
more. 

The subjects of these examinations are : — 
Intermediate : 



298 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

1. Roman law. 

2. Law and Custom of English courts. 

3. Jurisprudence. 

4. Logic, or Political Economy or Ancient History. 
Final : 

1. Real and personal property. 

2. Principles of law of Contracts. 

3. Principles of law of Torts. 

4. Principles of Equity. 

And, in more detail, one of : Succession (testamentary and 
intestate), Trusts, Bankruptcy, Crimes. Also for honors, one 
of : International law, Constitutional law, Conflict of Laws. 

Theology 
Degree of B.D. in two or three years according to preparation. 
Preliminary examination in : — 

1. Hellenistic Greek. 

2. Elementary Hebrew. 

3. A philosophical subject or science. 

4. One of : Advanced Hebrew, Classical Greek, Hellenistic 

Greek, Latin, German, History, a science. 
Final examination in : 

1. English Bible. 

2. Comparative Religion. 

3. Biblical Criticism and Exegesis. 

4. History of Doctrine. 

5. Ecclesiastical History. 

6. One of: Fundamental ideas of Religion, Semitic language 

other than Hebrew, Old Testament in Hebrew, New 
Testament in Greek, Epigraphy, Archaeology, Special 
period ecclesiastical history, Patristic literature, a 
branch of Apologetics, Oriental History. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



299 



IN JAPAN 

HIGHER COMMERCIAL SCHOOL 

Kobe 

The course of study, extending over four years, consists of the 
preparatory and the principal courses. The preparatory course is 
divided into the first and second departments and extends over one 
year, while the principal course is for three years. The first depart- 
ment of the preparatory course is for graduates of middle schools 
and the second for graduates of commercial schools. 

The program of the principal course 



Subjects 



First 
Year 



Second 
Year 



Third 
Year 



Commercial morality 

Commercial correspondence .... 

Commercial arithmetic 

Commercial geography 

Commercial history 

Commercial products 

Political economy 

Finance 

Statistics 

Law of bankruptcy 

Civil law 

International law 

Theory and practice of commerce . . 
Bookkeeping and accountancy . . . 

English 

Chinese, French, German, Russian, or 

Spanish (elective) 

Gymnastics 

Total 



Hours 
per Week 
I 
I 
2 
2 



1 

\ 4 
J 
1 

i 4 

5 
3 
6 



Hours 
per Week 

I 
2 
2 



Hours 
Per Week 



32 



32 



32 



C. THE NORM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 

Chapter XVII. General View 
Chapter XVIII. The United States 
Chapter XIX. Other Countries 



CHAPTER XVII 

GENERAL VIEW 

" Every man's life is a comedy, a tragedy, or a symphony, 
according as he is educated. It was a great thing when the 
common man first lifted up his head, looked about him, and 
said, ' I, too, will be educated.' " — Davenport, " Education 
for Efficiency," p. $6. 

The degree to which any State interests itself 
in education can, at the present day, be stated 
only in most general terms. Especially difficult 
is it to make justly any comparative statements 
as between countries. To begin with, all school 
statistics must have an allowance made for the 
factor of " personal equation," or we might better 
say of " racial equation." We would not hesitate, 
for instance, to repose greater confidence in the 
reports made by the Swiss government than those 
made by the Spanish government. I would ven- 
ture to state that the average American school 
official would accept as "close enough," figures 
which the German would more laboriously en- 
deavor to make strictly accurate. Hence we 
must hesitate to make sweeping generalizations in 

detailed characterization of various school systems. 

303 



304 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

We may, in a general way, allowing for this 
racial equation, recognize the reports of the edu- 
cational departments of the several nations as 
fairly accurate ; but when we collate them for com- 
parative review, we must discount the results. For 
one thing, definitions are not the same in all coun- 
tries : " enrollment " may mean one thing in one 
country and something a shade different in another; 
"elementary schools " may comprise certain grades 
in one country and other grades in another; "an- 
nual expenditure " may, in one country, include 
items not so recognized in another. Another 
source of inaccuracy for purposes of comparison 
is the fact that the various governments do not 
collect statistics and make reports at the same time; 
there may be as much as five years' discrepancy 
between the reports available at any given time. 

However, making allowances for all this, it is 
of interest to have brought before us the approxi- 
mate facts as to the number of children who are 
receiving schooling in the leading countries of the 
world. This may most forcibly be shown by 
graphic representation. 1 

1 The data for this and following graphs on elementary educa- 
tion are gathered from Report of Commissioner of Education, 1910, 
p. 1336 et seq. 



GENERAL VIEW 



305 



TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
£(Unit = 1000 pupils) 



UNITED STATES 



17,506 



GREAT BRITAIN 

AND IRELAND 

7,588 



RUSSIA 
5,505 



GERMANY 



10,224 



JAPAN 
5,714 



FRANCE 
5,600 



AUSTRIA 



HUNGARY 




SPAIN 
2,000 



CANADA 
1,202 



AUSTRALI 
618 



ARGENTINA 
615 



3ELGIUM 
915 



iET'HER 

LANDS 

892 



MEXICO 
777 


SWEDEN 
772 



SWITZER 
LAND 
707 



I0UMANW BULGARl- 



:NMARp GREECE PORTUGAL 
241 T f 240 J 



COLOMBIA 


CUBA 




CHILI 




PERU 


201 




196 




172 




154 



NEW ZOL AN'D 

ra 



SERVf'A 
(132] 



306 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



THE PER CENT OF POPULATION THUS ENROLLED IS AS FOLLOWS: — 



CANADA 22.3 



UNITED STATES 18.5 



GERMANY 17.0 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 17.0 



SWITZERLAND 16. 



NORWAY 16.3 



HUNGARY 16.3 



NETHERLANDS 15.3 



AUSTRALIA 15.3 



AUSTRIA 15.2 



FRANCE 14.2 



SWEDEN 14.2 



DENMARK 13.8 



BELGIUM 12.3 



SPAIN 11.9 



JAPAN 11.5 



BULGARIA 10.3 



CUBA 9.6 



ARGENTINE 9.5 



GREECE 9.2 



ITALY 8.0 



ROUMANIA 7.6 



MEXICO 5.7 



5.1 



SERVIA 



T?J 



COLOMBIA 



PORTUGAL 4.4 



The foregoing statistics show, in most general 
terms, the comparative " interest " taken in popu- 
lar education. But to arrive at a more accurate 
norm we naturally transpose interest into terms 
of support, and support into terms of financial ex- 
penditure. It might be argued that that country 



GENERAL VIEW 307 

which most heavily taxes itself for the support of 
its schools is the one entitled to first place in the 
list of countries arranged according to devotion 
to education. Even if figures to any degree 
accurate were obtainable, this conclusion would 
be unwarranted for several reasons. First, the 
monetary unit is not translatable in terms of 
purchasing power. It is well enough to say that 
one dollar is equivalent to four marks, but to say 
that an American high school teacher paid $1500 
a year is twice as valuable to his system as a 
secondary teacher in Germany paid 3000 marks 
is to his, would be absurd. And yet the Ameri- 
can budget would show a double expenditure on 
this account as compared with the German statis- 
tics. Again, to know that the annual cost of edu- 
cating each elementary school pupil costs New 
South Wales $18.21 and Belgium $8.95 is far from 
proving either that the people of New South Wales 
are twice as much interested in education as are 
the people of Belgium or that the Australian 
pupil receives twice as good schooling as does 
the Belgian pupil. 

Moreover, the quality of the investment is a 
variable that cannot be computed. Even of two 



308 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

neighboring cities in the same State, one may 
spend its school money wisely and the other 
squander an equal amount through waste- 
ful methods of administration. " Qualitatively, 
through the roughly and ill-constructed subjec- 
tive standards of public opinion, it has been as- 
sumed that every investment of public funds in 
public education yielded an immeasurable divi- 
dend in the form of an enlightened, moral, and 
efficient citizenship. . . . Quantitatively, these 
dividends are almost impossible of measure- 
ment." 1 

These limitations, then, must be kept promi- 
nently in mind as we consider the following finan- 
cial tables : — 

1 Edward C. Elliott, " Some Fiscal Aspects of Public Education 
in American Cities," New York, 1905, p. 3. 



GENERAL VIEW 



309 



AMOUNT SPENT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, ANNUALLY 
(Unit = $ 100,000) 



UNITED STATES 
403,6 



GREAT BRITAIN 
AND IRELAND 

127,4 



FRANCE 
54.9 



HUNGARY 
18,4 



ITALY 
13.2 



AUSTRIA 
27,5 



GERMANY 
124,4 



CANADA 
25,7 



NETHER- 
LANDS 
12.7 


SWITZER- 
LAND 
11.1 



AUS- 
TRALIA 



JAPAN 
20,4 



SWEDEN 
9.4 



BEL- 
GIUM 
8,2 



SPAIN 
5 



MEXICO Z EALAN D ARGENTINE N0RWAY CUBA CH|| _ E 

±] L!i] Ld 00 







URUGUAY 



310 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



EXPENDITURE PER CAPITA OF ENROLLMENT 



NEW ZEALAND $29.30 


I 


UNITED STATES 22.92 


CANADA 21.38 


AUSTRALIA 16.83 




GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 16.78 




SWITZERLAND 15.66 




URUGUAY 15.39 




CUBA 15.36 




NETHERLANDS 14.29 




CHILI 13.77 




GERMANY 12.17 




SWEDEN 12.12 




FRANCE 11.92 




NORWAY 9.02 




PERU 9.02 




BELGIUM 8.95 




AUSTRIA 6.61 




MEXICO 5.78 J 




ARGENTINE 5.69 I 




HUNGARY 5.62 J 




GREECE 5.35 J 




ITALY 4.83 | 




JAPAN 3.57| 




SPAIN r 

2. 60 | 





GENERAL VIEW 



311 



EXPENDITURE PER CAPITA OF POPULATION 



NEW ZEALAND $4.60 



UNITED STATES 4.45 



CANADA 3.89 



SWITZERLAND 3.04 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 2.i 



AUSTRALIA 2.54 



NETHERLANDS 2.19 



GERMANY 2.05 



SWEDEN 1.72 



NORWAY 1.47 



CUBA 1.47 



FRANCE 1.40 



BELGIUM 1.10 



URUGUAY 1.06 



AUSTRIA 1.00 
HUNGARY .91 | 



CHILE .69 



ARGENTINE .5* 



GREECE 



PERU | ,35 

spain! .25 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE UNITED STATES 

" Our school system has not yet transcended the tadpole 
stage, and the next twenty-five years ought to — and I am 
optimist enough to believe they will — show vastly accelerated 
progress, so that the transformations of the past quarter of a 
century will appear small beside those of the next quarter, and 
the per capita sum spent upon each child will be greatly 
augmented." — Hall, " Educational Problems," Vol. I, p. vi. 

Public education, as we have noted, is to be 
measured in two general directions — that of 
opportunity and that of compulsion. 

Definite recognition of both of these phases is to be traced 
in the records of Massachusetts Colony. Witness the School 
Ordinance of 16??. " It is therefore ordered, That every town- 
ship in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to 
the number of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one 
within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him 
to write and read, whose wages shall be paid either by the parents 
or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general." 1 

And again, " There was, after 1646, a considerable amount of 
compulsory primary education in Virginia, much more than is 
generally supposed, since the records of it have been buried in 
the parish vestry books." 2 

1 Dexter, op. cit., p. 585. 

2 John Fiske, " Old Virginia and her Neighbors," Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1902, Vol. II, p. 287. 

312 



THE UNITED STATES 313 

In the United States every State throws open 
the door of educational opportunity to every child 
within its borders. Free tuition is given in the 
common schools of every State, 1 but there is a 
variation in the ages between which schooling 
may legally be demanded, shown by the following 
table : — 

Legal School Age 

Not limited : New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island 

4-16 : Connecticut 

4-20 : Wisconsin, Oregon, New Jersey 

5-18 : Vermont 

5-20 : Michigan 

5-21 : Maine, New York, Mississippi, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, 
New Mexico, Idaho 

6-1 7 : District of Columbia 

6-21 : Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Arkan- 
sas, Oklahoma, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, 
South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, 
Washington, California 

6-20 : Kentucky, Missouri, North Dakota 

6-18 : Louisiana, Utah, Nevada, Georgia 

7-20 : Virginia 

7-21 : Alabama 

7-17: Texas 

1 Among the early colonies, the opportunities for elementary 
schooling were on the whole meager ; the schools were nearly all 
private enterprises and were usually supported by tuition fees. The 
New York Free School Society organized, in 1805, on the proposi- 



314 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

In the high schools of more than half the 
States, tuition is free. In some States only non- 
residents pay a fee. 1 

Higher education is absolutely free in but few 
institutions, but in many others systems of scholar- 
ships make it so to deserving students. But it is 
not to be forgotten that the fee demanded from 
the student by no means covers the cost of the 
tuition he receives. In 1910, the total income 
of about five hundred universities, colleges, and 
technological schools, public and private, exceeded 
$80,000,000, of which the students contributed in 
fees less than $15,000,000. Thus we may say 
that the American college student receives four 
fifths of his education free. 

It is not alone in remitting tuition fees that the 
State furthers education. " Thirty States and the 
District of Columbia have enacted laws providing, 
in one way or another, for free textbooks." 2 Of 
these, nine limit the prescription to the elementary 

tion that when schools are maintained by fees, it is "impracticable 
and unjust to impose any compulsory attendance upon the very 
poor. 11 It was not until 1848 that a whole State, Wisconsin, abol- 
ished tuition fees. 

1 See Hollister, op. cit., p. 356 et seq., for table showing, by 
States, principal legal enactments affecting high schools. 

2 Hollister, op. cit., p. 80. 



THE UNITED STATES 315 

schools, ten make it mandatory upon communities 
and eleven make it permissive. " New York 
State enacted a law authorizing direct taxes for 
* school libraries' in 1834, and followed up this 
act, in 1838, with provisions for annual State ap- 
propriations to such libraries, which continue even 
to the present day. Twenty-one other States have 
since followed the example of the Empire State 
and placed like tax laws on their statute books." 1 
Many municipal systems are giving formal atten- 
tion to the medical inspection of pupils. 2 The 
health of pupils is further enhanced by the estab- 
lishment of playgrounds ; and in a few cities ex- 
periments are being made in providing pupils with 
noon-day meals at or a little above cost. Thus in 
many directions is society making use of the school 
organization in order to effect its own advance- 
ment and the betterment of the race. 3 

1 Foght, op. cit., p. 257. 

2 See L. H. Gulick-L. P. Ayres, " Medical Inspection of Schools," 
New York, 1908. Also, A. H. Hogarth, "Medical Inspection of 
Schools," London, 1909, and T. N. Kelynack, "Medical Examina- 
tion of Schools and Scholars," London, 1910. For data collected by 
the Bureau of Municipal Research, New York, concerning legislation 
and practice throughout the country, see Report of Commissioner of 
Education, 1910, p. 142. 

8 See Dutton-Snedden, op. cit., Chap. XXXI, on the widening 
sphere of public education. 



316 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

As to compulsory education, in only eleven 
States is there no legal provision therefor. In 
the following table are given the ages between 
which pupils must be in school attendance. In 
many cases, the term may be extended or short- 
ened under certain circumstances. For example, 
the New York law fixes the period at from 
seven to sixteen years of age ; but a pupil who 
has reached the age of fourteen, has attained a 
certain proficiency in the elementary studies, and 
has completed 130 days of attendance during the 
year preceding his application, may leave school 
for employment. 

5-14 : New Jersey 

6-14 : Maryland (certain counties only) 

7-14 : Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Delaware, Kentucky, In- 
diana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Wyoming, New Mexico 

6-16 : Pennsylvania 

7-15 : Maine, Nebraska 

7-16 : Connecticut, New York, Illinois, Michigan 

8-14 : New Hampshire, District of Columbia, West Virginia, 
Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, California 

8-15 : Vermont, Kansas, Washington 

8-16 : Oklahoma, Ohio, Utah, Idaho 

8-18 : Minnesota 

9-14 : Oregon 



THE UNITED STATES 317 

None : Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Flor- 
ida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, 
Arkansas. 

Penalties upon parents for neglect are fixed by 
all States having compulsory education laws. 
These penalties are usually fines, ranging from 
$3 to $50 ; the Nevada law is most rigorous — 
first offense, $50 to $100; subsequent, $100 to 
$200 with costs. Imprisonment for short terms 
is added in a few States. New Jersey makes one 
guilty of neglect " punishable as a disorderly 
person." 

And now, what is this interest in education 
costing the people of America ? " There has 
never been a time in the world when there has 
been spent upon the young a tithe of the thought 
and treasure which the American people have 
freely poured out during the past forty years." 1 
A generation ago an English observer reported 
that " If there is one question upon which the 
citizens of the United States are practically 
unanimous, it is in support of free schools. The 
gauge of public interest in the system is the bur- 
den of taxation which the people are willing to 

1 Birdseye, " Individual Training," p. iii. 



31 8 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

bear for its maintenance." 1 And to-day the fact 
is that " roughly, nine tenths of elementary educa- 
tion and the education of teachers, over two thirds 
of secondary education, and over a third of 
college and higher technical education are 
provided and controlled by the public." 2 

Dr. Jackson has given us an historical sketch of " The De- 
velopment of Support in Colonial Massachusetts," 3 the aim of his 
study being " first, to trace the various methods through which the 
early schools of Massachusetts were supported — showing at the 
same time the basis of experience for dealing with the problem 
of support through the close relationship existing between (i) 
education and religion, and (2) education and the support and 
apprenticeship of the poor ; and, second, after partial support 
by partial taxation had become customary, to point out the 
main causes which made general taxation the sole method of 
school support and hence gave rise to the ' free school ' — pub- 
licly controlled and publicly supported." 

The amount expended upon the common 
schools of the nation now exceeds $400,000,000 

1 Francis Adams, lt The Free School System of the United 
States," London, 1875, P- 80. Also, "As to the propriety of 
retaining the free character of the schools I can find but one opin- 
ion — at any rate, so far as the elementary schools are concerned. 
A small minority are opposed to free high schools. 1 ' 

2 Thorndike, in Report of Commissioner of Education, 1907, 
p. 525. 

3 George L. Jackson, New York, 1909, p. 5. 



THE UNITED STATES 



319 



annually, which is at the rate of $445 per capita 
of population and of $31.65 per capita of pupils 
enrolled. 

These amounts have been steadily rising in the last forty 
years, as may be seen by the following table : — ■ 



Year 


Total 


Per Capita of 
Population 


Per Capita of 
Enrollment 


1870-71 

1880-81 

1890-9I 

I900-OI 

1907-08 

I908-O9 


$ 69,107,612 

83,642,964 

147,494,809 

227,522,827 

371,344,410 

401,397,747 


$i-75 
1.63 
2.31 
2.94 
4.27 
4-45 


$15.20 
13.61 

17-54 
21.23 

30-55 
31-65 



This is far from evenly distributed throughout the nation. 



Division of States 


Per Capita of 
Population 


Per Capita of 
Enrollment 


. 


1870-71 


1908-09 


1870-71 


1908-09 


North Atlantic 

South Atlantic 

South Central 

North Central 

Western 


$2.38 
O.63 

0-73 
2.14 
2.15 


$5-55 
2.19 
2.00 

5-39 
6.59 


$18.31 

IO.27 

9.06 

14.87 

21.87 


$42.03 

15-57 
13-94 
35-5 2 
49.91 


The United States .... 


i-75 


4-45 


15.20 


31-65 



Reducing these figures to percentage of variation from the 
mean for the United States, we have : — 



320 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 





As to Population 


As to En 


ROLLMENT 




1870-71 


1908-09 


1870-71 


1890-09 


North Atlantic .... 


+ 36 


+ 24 


+ 20 


+ 33 


South Atlantic .... 


-64 


-51 


-32 


-5i 


South Central .... 


-58 


-55 


-68 


-56 


North Central .... 


+ 22 


+ 21 


- 2 


+ 12 


Western 


+ 23 


+ 48 


+ 44 


+ 58 



This would indicate that, compared with the United States 
as a whole, the Western States are spending upon their schools 
proportionately much more than they were forty years ago, and 
the North Atlantic group considerably less. 

This #400,000,000 was received, as follows : — 



Income of permanent school funds and rent of school 

lands ..... 
From State tax or appropriation 
From local tax or appropriation 



Total 



$13,446,826 

°3>547,354 

288,642,500 

38,010,609 

$403,647,289 

This shows that 71.5 per cent — nearly three 
fourths — of the money expended upon the com- 
mon schools is derived from local taxation, the 
States providing 15.7 per cent. 

The expenditure of this money was distributed 
thus : — 

For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, and ap- 
paratus $81,878,591 

For teachers' and superintendents' salaries . 237,013,913 

For all other purposes, principally maintenance . 82,505,243 

Total #4oi,397,747 



THE UNITED STATES 



321 



Thus 59 per cent, practically three fifths, of the 
school moneys goes into salaries, one fifth into 
sites, buildings, etc., and one fifth into mainte- 
nance and other expenses. 

It may be estimated that the expenditures for 
all public purposes of the United States govern- 
ment, of the various States, and of the minor 
civil divisions total over $1,600,000,000; thus the 
nation spends about one fourth of its income 
upon its schools. 

Dr. Elliott calculated the following percentages as repre- 
senting, for 1 90 1, the amounts devoted to schools in relation to 
the entire amounts of municipal expenditures : 1 — 



New York . 








■ I9-J7 


New Orleans . 






11. 12 


Chicago . . 








36.85 


Detroit . . . 






21.44 


Philadelphia 








17-37 


Milwaukee . . 






20.49 


St. Louis . 








17.51 


Washington 






19.84 


Boston . . . 








13.07 


Newark . . . 






21.79 


Baltimore . 








18.61 


Jersey City . . 






13.90 


Cleveland . 








26.17 


Louisville . . 






18.48 


Buffalo . . 








19.81 


Minneapolis 






25.03 


San Francisco 








19.80 


Johnstown, Pa. 






46.80 


Cincinnati . 








18.12 


Norfolk, Va. . 






6.96 


Pittsburg . 








. 15.60 











1 Op. cit., p. 22. Also, at p. 55: "A municipality is seldom 
economical in the expenditure of its revenues. It is far more often 
either parsimonious or extravagant. The recognition of the prin- 
ciple of expediency is much more frequent than that of real worth 
or official utility." 



322 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Dr. Foght puts in a plea 1 for a less disproportionate expen- 
diture for rural schools. "Right now we are spending $33.01 
on the city child's education for every $13.17 on the rural 
child's. This is for school maintenance alone and has nothing 
to do with permanent school investment. In this field the 
cities, with their much smaller total valuation, invest vastly 
larger sums of money in school buildings and equipment than 
rural communities. This is not giving the farm boys and girls 
a fair chance." 

As to secondary education, the government is 

fast assuming responsibility for its provision. In 

1890, 39 per cent of the high schools, with 44 

per cent of the teachers and 32 per cent of the 

pupils, were under private auspices. Twenty 

years later, the figures have fallen to 1 5 per cent 

of the schools, 21 per cent of the teachers, and 

11 per cent of the pupils. 

The high school " is recognized everywhere as a necessary 
and legitimate part of our common school system. . . . But 
while we probably have all the elements represented, in the 
country at large, for the successful administration of secondary 
education, yet there are very few cases, if any, where individual 
States have brought them all together into a consistent scheme 
of laws." 2 Five States have made no specific provision in 
their State laws for high schools, at least four make their estab- 
lishment mandatory, and the others have enacted specifically 
permissive legislation of various kinds. 

1 Op. tit., p. 18. 

2 Hollister, op. cit., p. 46. 



THE UNITED STATES 323 

Municipalities are quite consistently hearty 
in their support of high schools, but to secure 
their establishment in rural communities is a 
serious problem for State governments. Two 
general plans by which the State may give 
financial aid to secondary education are practiced 
— the paying of State subsidies to the schools 
and directly or indirectly paying tuitions. 

Dr. Snyder, in his study of "The Legal Status of Rural 
High Schools in the United States," 1 groups the States as fol- 
lows : — 

Those giving direct aid to high schools : Maine, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, Florida, Massachusetts, North Dakota, Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Those using other than the direct subsidy plan : California, 
New York, Rhode Island, Washington. 

Those directly or indirectly paying the tuition of certain 
high school pupils : New Hampshire, Connecticut, Delaware, 
Vermont. 

Those legalizing the local payment of high school tuition : 
Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, Nebraska, Michigan, Idaho, Oregon, 
Utah. 

Those making no legal provision for the tuition of nonresi- 
dent high school pupils : Illinois, Iowa, New Jersey, Colorado, 
South Dakota, Wyoming, Arizona, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, 
New Mexico. 

1 Edwin R. Snyder, New York, 1909, the thesis of which is 
" State aid to rural high schools is a public need and duty." 



3 2 4 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



One of the most universal methods of giving 
aid to education of all grades is that provided 
by the constitutions of the several States exempt- 
ing from taxation, public school houses and 
apparatus, academies, colleges, and universities. 

The State has been increasingly mindful of its 
obligation to render financial aid to higher educa- 
tion. The 494 universities, colleges, and techno- 
logical schools reporting to the Bureau of 
Education, derived their income for 1910, as 
follows : — 



From tuition and other educational fees 
From room rent ..... 
From board and other noneducational fees 
From productive funds 
From State or city 

For increase of plant 

For current expenses 
From the United States government . 
From private benefactions 

For increase of plant 

For endowment .... 

For current expenses 
From all other sources and unclassified 
Total 



#14,687,192 
1,221,131 

3,311,974 
11,592,113 

5,494,539 

14,226,360 

4,607,298 

6,143,435 
9,771,122 
2,822,588 
6,561,235 



#80,438,987 

Thus of the $80,000,000 received, over $24,000,000 
was furnished by government — national, State, and 
municipal. 



THE UNITED STATES 325 

" The earlier American colleges were, in the beginning, in a 
large sense the children of the State. Yale, Harvard, Princeton, 
Columbia, were all chartered by and in some measure supported 
by their States at the start, and are yet subject to the law, 
though they have become independent of such support." 1 

The declaration by the General Court of Massachusetts, in 
1652, read : "If it should be granted that learning, namely, 
skill in the tongues and liberal arts, is not absolutely necessary 
for the being of a Commonwealth and churches, yet we conceive 
that, in the judgment of the godly wise, it is beyond all question 
not only laudable, but necessary, for the well-being of the same ; 
and although New England (blessed be God) is completely fur- 
nished (for this present age) with men in place . . . seeing 
the first founders do wear away apace, and that it grows more 
and more difficult to fill places of most eminence as they are 
empty or wanting, ..." Following this cautious estimate as 
to the immortality of the early wise men, the document provides 
for aid to Harvard College. Also, the College of William and 
Mary was so aided by the Virginia government that it had " at 
its start, more wealth than Harvard had seen during decades of 
struggle for existence." 

The national government has been liberal in its 
aid to higher education. At least two townships 
of land have been given to each State admitted to 
the Union since 1800 (excepting Maine, Texas, 
and West Virginia), for the purpose of founding a 
university. In 1857, Justin S. Morrill, of Ver- 
mont, first introduced into Congress his measure 

1 Draper, op. cit., p. 35. 



326 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

for the " endowment of agricultural and mechanical 
colleges in the several States by the national gov- 
ernment." This act was signed January 2, 1862, 1 
and provided for aid to the States through liberal 
grants of lands — 30,000 acres for each member 
of Congress. 2 

There was " a sentiment abroad at that time in the country 
that the applications of science, especially those of chemistry so 
brilliantly and lately made by Liebig, would prove of the utmost 
economic value, so that hope and expectation were perhaps 
somewhat excessive. Great railroad grants were being made 
by the government and wide tracts were homesteaded or thrown 
open. Unfortunately, many of the States sold their educational 
land, and the colleges they established were for the most part 
poor and mean. Some States, however, notably Michigan and 
New York, kept their land and profited greatly by their foresight. 
Over 1,000,000 acres of this land are still unsold, and the sales 
altogether realized about $1 2,000,000." 3 

1 " War summons a people to the discrimination of the values 
which help and constitute human character and national life. It 
moves the will as well as quickens passions. It represents concert 
of action. It stirs up latent energy; it usually serves to assure a 
nation of its having resources and capacities of which it had never 
dreamed. In such a revival of mind and heart, all the people are 
easily attracted towards the institutions and [methods of education." 
— Thwing, " Education in the United States, 11 p. 6. 

2 The total grant under this act was 10,578,529 acres, of which 
there remained unsold, 1910, 1,026,847: Oklahoma, 250,000 ; South 
Dakota, 155,612; Montana, 122,919; Wyoming, 90,000; Idaho, 
81,560; Washington, 80,260, etc. 3 Hall, op. cit., p. 668. 



THE UNITED STATES 327 

Other acts have followed, and it is estimated 
that for the year 191 1, each State and territory 
will receive $80,000 from the United States gov- 
ernment for agricultural colleges and experiment 
stations. Every State has its agricultural college 
or department, thus supported, at least in part, 
and in the Southern States there are sixteen addi- 
tional schools for colored students. 

This chapter may well be concluded by giving 
emphasis to the thought that there is after all no 
sharp distinction that may be drawn between the 
public and the private institutions of higher learn- 
ing. "To divide the institutions of the country 
into two groups on the ground of State support or 
of support personal would be a grave misfortune. 
Both classes of institutions belong to the public. 
No college can be called private." 1 The amount 
of money bestowed upon the colleges and univer- 
sities by private benefactions is tremendous; but 
it is society that makes possible the accumulation 
of the private wealth, and the return of part of it 
to education is but its return to society which first 
gave it. 

America may well look upon the privately en- 

1 Person, op. cit., p. 273. 



328 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

dowed universities with the same hopeful assur- 
ance that it does upon those governmentally sup- 
ported. From both groups it may expect the 
same devotion to democratic ideals, and to both 
will it render and in turn receive the same lofty 
allegiance. "Itself seeking the highest ideals, un- 
touched by selfishness, the university is able to 
move democratic communities unto the highest 
and the best. The university should constantly 
keep before the democratic community the duty 
of a love for truth, of a love for moral excellence, 
and an appreciation of the beautiful." 1 

1 Thwing, " History of Education in America," p. 453. 



CHAPTER XIX 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

Germany is " that nation which, first of all civilized nations, 
established a system of schools for the entire people down to 
the lowest strata of society." — Hughes- Klemm, "Progress of 
Education in the Century," p. 147. 

" Compulsory education usually makes itself unnecessary 
after a few decades. . . . Ignorance tends to perpetuate itself, 
and so does education." — Sharpless, "English Education," 
p. 42. 

We have already noted the degree to which 
the nations of the world tax themselves in favor 
of public education. We may now consider, 
for each of the leading foreign nations, the share 
which the central government takes upon itself 
and the degree to which it imposes upon minor 
political divisions the duty of supporting their 
schools. 

Germany 

In Germany, the government requires that 
sufficient provision be made for public elemen- 
tary schools to accommodate all those desiring 
to avail themselves of them. At the same time it 

329 



330 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

does not interfere with private schools further than 
to satisfy itself that they meet a certain stand- 
ard of excellence. Nearly one third of the $125,- 
000,000 annually spent upon public elementary 
education throughout the empire is furnished 
by the State governments, the balance coming 
from the several communities. The continua- 
tion schools — industrial, commercial, and agri- 
cultural — are subsidized by nearly all the States. 
As to secondary education, there is no obliga- 
tion put upon either royal or municipal authorities 
to provide it for all who may desire it. " There 
is no redress for those who are excluded. Ap- 
plications for admission to some of the larger city 
schools must be made long in advance. The less 
fortunate — sometimes because less influential — 
must put up with what can be had." 1 The sec- 
ondary schools are not self-supporting, the large 
deficit being met by the State government 
or by the municipality or from private funds, 
according to the legal character of the school. 2 

1 Russell, op. cit., p. 171. 

2 There are three kinds of schools: (1) State schools, ruled 
entirely by the State ; (2) Municipal schools, built and staffed at 
the expense of the town; and, (3) schools that receive financial 
assistance from the State. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 



331 



Thus, in Prussia, for 1902, the total expenditure of 
approximately $12,500,000, $10,500,000 of which 
was for salaries, was met as follows 



By State funds 
By local means 
By endowments, etc. 
By private means 



$3,100,000 

3,700,000 

360,000 

5,340,000 



None of the universities is private or municipal ; 
all are State institutions and the largest part of 
the expense is covered by direct State subsidies. 
Higher vocational education is supported in- 
directly : for instance, commercial schools are so 
recognized and supervised that their graduates are 
granted exemptions from a portion of the required 
military service. Government support of schools 
for girls has not been very hearty, though of the 
Higher Girls' Schools about one third are public. 

Germany has made various essays into extra- 
instructional activities in the schools. Two 
specific cases, out of many, may be cited. The 
city of Strassburg is the pioneer in taking care of 
children's teeth during school age. In six years 
27,801 children were treated by the school dentists 
of that city at a cost of over $6000. In twelve of 
the eighteen cities of Bavaria regular meals are 



332 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

provided school children. For example : " In 
Ludwigshafen indigent children are given, before 
school opens, a quarter liter of warm milk (not 
skimmed) and two rolls. During the winter of 
1 906-1 907 as many as 1230 children, or about 10 
per cent of all the children attending the lower 
schools, received breakfast, which cost the city 

$l 4 20." 1 

France 

In France, the law of 1833 made it obli- 
gatory upon communes to provide primary 
schools either public or subsidized private. In- 
fant schools are not obligatory, but in communes 
of 2000 or more population they are entitled 
to local and State subventions. The local school 
tax is paid into the State treasury, and all ob- 
ligatory expenses of the primary schools, except 
for sites and buildings, are borne by State appro- 
priations. Nearly 70 per cent of the money ex- 
pended on elementary schools was contributed 
by the State and the balance by the communes. 

The steady increase is noteworthy; the amount expended 
by the State on primary education : — 

1 Commissioners Report, 1909, p. 475. Also, 1910, p. 467, show- 
ing summary for 201 German cities. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 333 

1870 9,988,300 fr. 

1880 26,677,813 

1890 129,388,610 

1901-02 . . . . . . . 236,598,969 

1906-07 . . . . . . . 283,337,098 

England 

In England, the national government gives 
financial aid to the schools. The grants for 
1909-1910 were estimated as follows: — 

England $66,415,022 

Scotland 10,449,934 

Ireland 7,892,267 

84,757,223 

Eighty-five per cent of the amount for Eng- 
land and ninety-four per cent of that for Scotland 
went into elementary education. About one half 
of the total amount spent upon the schools is 
provided by parliamentary grants. The balance 
is made up by local taxation " rates." Thus, 
though the national grants are practically the 
same for each pupil, the average per capita cost 
varies in consequence of the variation in the 
local rates. It reaches such extremes as £6 18s. 
in Hornsey to £2 4^. in Whitehaven, with such 
intermediate figures as Liverpool £4. 13s. id.; 



334 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Manchester £4. 13^. lod. ; Sheffield £3 I 5 S - &d.\ 
Bradford £5 \os. 2d. 

In 1908, in Scotland, the cost of maintenance per 
pupil in average attendance was in Public Schools 
£3 lls - l d*\ Voluntary Schools £2 15^. 2d. 

In 1907, in Ireland, the State grant for primary 
education amounted to $6,277,837, and the amount 
raised from local sources $547,950. 

Other Countries 

Austria. — Only a few elementary schools sup- 
ported by the State; secondary schools by State, 
by provinces, and by the larger communities. 

Belgium. — Each commune must provide at 
least one primary school, the cost being sustained 
by the locality with subsidies from the State and 
provinces. 

Denmark. — The State makes grants to private 
schools. 

Italy. — The State provides about half ; the 
communes and provinces the balance. 

Netherlands. — Private institutions are sup- 
ported by the State, and public schools by the 
State and the communities. 

Norway and Sweden. — The State pays 25 per 
cent of the cost of elementary schools. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 335 

Spain. — The elementary schools supported 
chiefly by municipalities. At least one secondary 
school must be provided in every province. 

Switzerland. — The expenditures are borne 
about equally by the State and the communes. 

Canada and Attstralian States. — Support is 
by combined government grants and local tax. 

Argentina* — The constitution places upon the 
provinces the obligation of maintaining a system 
of primary instruction. The federal subsidies 
in 1908 amounted to about $1,000,000. 

Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico. — Support divided 
between federal and local governments. 

Brazil. — Elementary instruction provided by 
State governments ; secondary education by the 
Republic. 

Chili. — No local taxes are levied for local 
purposes, the national government controlling 
and supporting the public schools and subsidiz- 
ing most of the private schools. 

Educational Opportunity 

As to the opportunity phase, we may say, in 
general, that nearly all nations provide elementary 
schooling free of tuition, and that secondary and 



336 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

higher education are universally subject to 
tuition fees. 

In Germany, elementary schools have been free 
in Prussia since 1868 ; l in the other states a small 
fee is ordinarily collected but may be avoided by 
showing poverty. The annual tuition fees in sec- 
ondary schools vary from $7 or $8 to as high as 
$48; the former in Bavaria, the latter in the higher 
grades in Hamburg. In fact, a third of the total 
expenditures for secondary schools is raised from 
tuition fees. Fees are charged in the universities, 
but " impecunious students are allowed to postpone 
payment of fees for a number of years in some 
universities ; in others, payment is remitted en- 
tirely, or to the extent of one half." 2 

In France, primary education has been free 
since 1881. In the secondary schools the fees 
range up to $30 in the colleges and $50 in the 
lyc'ees. There are, however, a number of scholar- 
ships available, which remit the fees. 

In England, elementary education has been 
free since 1891 ; in Scotland since 1893, an d in 

1 The Mittelschnlen charge a fee of from $10 to $25, and are 
patronized by the lower middle classes. 

2 Lexis, op. cit., p. 6. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 337 

Ireland since 1892. Secondary schools charge 
tuition varying from $15 in some districts to $150 
at Harrow, but one condition of the government 
grants to these schools is that 25 per cent of the 
places shall be open to non-paying pupils. 

With but few exceptions elementary schooling 
is free in all of the other countries we have been 
considering. It is not so in Netherlands; in 
Italy, it is so in the lower grades only ; and in 
Japan, from six to ten years of age it is free, and 
from ten to fourteen a small fee is exacted. 

Compulsory Education 

In compulsory education Germany is the 
pioneer, Weimar having enacted the first law 
in 1 61 9, followed by Gotha 1642, Brunswick 
1647, Wlirtemberg 1649, and Prussia 171 7. In 
1900 it could be said that virtually no child of 
school age was withheld from school. Negli- 
gent parents are liable to punishment by fine or 
imprisonment. 1 Even attendance upon continu- 

1 " The necessity of having children in school has been inbred in 
the life and thought of the German people. All their plans are 
made to conform to it. . . . It is thought as necessary to have 
children go to school regularly as to have them eat regularly." — 
Draper, op. at., p. 63. 



338 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ation schools — in Prussia until the age of 
eighteen — is compulsory, and the employer is 
liable to fine for the nonattendance of his em- 
ployee. 

In France, primary education has been com- 
pulsory since 1882, covering the ages between 
six and thirteen. Penalties for noncompliance 
range from a fine of from eleven to fifteen francs 
to imprisonment of four or five days. 

In England, the law of 1870 provided that 
" the parent or guardian of every child between 
five and fourteen years of age must cause such 
child to attend a certified efficient school every 
time the school is open, unless the child is receiv- 
ing efficient instruction in some other manner, or 
being twelve years of age, or more, is exempt 
from attendance at school under certain condi- 
tions." The penalties for noncompliance range 
from 5 s. to £5. In Scotland, since 1880, parents 
have been required to provide efficient education 
for their children between the ages of five and 
fourteen. School boards may compel attendance 
in continuation classes up to the age of seventeen. 

The ages for compulsory attendance in other 
countries are, in general statements, as follows : — 



OTHER COUNTRIES 339 

Austria : From end of sixth to end of fourteenth 

year. 
Denmark: 7-14. 
Greece: nominally 5-12. 
Hungary : 6- 1 4. 

Italy : 6-9, and 9-12 where available. 
Netherlands : 6-1 3. 
Norway: 6J-14. 
Portugal : nominally elementary. 
Spain: nominal. 
Sweden : 7-14. 

Switzerland ': varies in different cantons. 
Canada : up to 14. 
Australia: usually 6-14. 

Argentina: 6-14 to 8-12 in various provinces. 
Bolivia : nominally elementary. 
Brazil : not compulsory. 
Chili : not compulsory. 
Ecuador: boys, 6-14; girls, 6-12. 
Mexico : elementary. 
Uruguay : elementary. 
Venezuela ; 7 to completion of elementary. 
Japan: 6-14. 



PART II. SCHOOL DIRECTION 

Chapter XX. The United States 
Chapter XXI. Other Countries 



CHAPTER XX 

THE UNITED STATES 

" The schools, in general, have occupied an intermediate 
position between Church and State, responding always to in- 
fluence from both sides, but affected chiefly in earlier times by 
ecclesiastical considerations and in later times chiefly by con- 
siderations of a political character ; and at all times they have 
been open to influences of a more diffusive sort, economic, lit- 
erary, and, broadly speaking, social." — Brown, " The Making 
of Our Middle Schools," p. i. 

"The administration of American education is commonly 
democratic and local, by which is meant that ultimate control 
lies in the hands of representatives of the people, and the units 
of administration are small rather than State-wide." — Snedden, 
" Vocational Training," p. 57. 

"America to-day needs a new educational dispensation. 
Our system is not fulfilling the purpose for which our fathers 
established it, nor is it molding men as it did in older days 
when it was simpler and cheaper." — Hall, " Educational 
Problems," p. vi. 

The direction of public education in the United 
States is distinctly a function of the governments 
of the several States. No mention of education 
or schools is made in either the Declaration of 
Independence or in the federal Constitution. 

343 



344 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

" The very definite and common understanding 
at the time of making ' the more perfect union' 
must have been that the federal government had 
distinct responsibility about schools and morals in 
federal territory beyond the limits of organized 
States, but that this function was reserved to the 
States wherever there were or whenever there 
should be organized States." * On the other hand, 
every State Constitution makes some provision 
for the establishment and maintenance of a public 
school system. The State legislatures have, in 
obedience to the mandates of their respective con- 
stitutions, enacted laws which vest responsibility 
for the direction of their school boards. These 
boards are thus, whatever may be the method of 
selection of their members in any case, the direct 
and responsible agents of the State government. 
Various minor political divisions are used as units 
of administration. 

With this preface we may now study a little 
more particularly the relation to public education 
of the various political divisions. While it is true 
that the federal government has no direct control 
or supervision over the public schools of the 

1 Draper, op. cit., p. 1 08. 



THE UNITED STATES 345 

nation, it is not without its influence upon them. 
We have already made note of the fact that the 
national government has made specific grants of 
public lands to the States for higher education. 
Beyond this, since 1785 about 80,000,000 acres, 
valued in the neighborhood of #100,000,000, have 
been given to the States for the common schools. 
The government directly administers the schools 
of the District of Columbia, Indian Territory, 
Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. 
It also conducts its Military Academy, at West 
Point, and its Naval Academy, at Annapolis. Its 
interest in educational matters is further evidenced 
by its support of the Congressional Library, at 
Washington, and its aid to the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution and educational institutions of collegiate 
rank in the District of Columbia. More than 
this, the government keeps in touch with the 
schools of the States through its Bureau of Edu- 
cation. This was organized, as a department, 
March 2, 1867, but made a bureau of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior, July 1, 1869. The bureau 
collects, collates, and publishes statistics relating 
to the schools of all grades, public and private, 
throughout the nation ; makes investigation and 



346 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

reports on matters of special interest; and ad- 
ministers the schools of Alaska. 

Among the States, New York was the first to 
establish a State Board, when, in 1784, it provided 
for a Board of Regents. This board, recently 
reconstituted, is a continuous body, composed of 
eleven members, elected by the legislature for 
terms of eleven years. The New Jersey Board is 
appointed by the governor from Congressional 
districts. The Massachusetts Board, since July 1, 
1909, is composed of four educators appointed by 
the governor. Washington has two boards : the 
State Board of Education, composed of four edu- 
cators appointed by the governor ; and the Board 
of Higher Education, consisting of the State 
Board and representatives of the State Univer- 
ity, colleges, and normal schools. The duties and 
powers of the State Boards are as diverse as their 
form of organization. They exercise various 
functions, such as : the custody of State funds, the 
general oversight of education, the government 
of certain State institutions, the election of State 
superintendents, the selection of school books, 1 

1 In most States the textbooks to be used are prescribed by the 
local boards. In some, among them Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, 



THE UNITED STATES 347 

the certification of teachers. Thus there is 
at present no uniformity in the details of the 
directive systems of the several States. But the 
trend is toward more uniform methods and in 
the direction of centralization. " There is a wide- 
spread effort towards a far-reaching revision of 
State school laws. This effort has in several 
States taken the form of the appointment of edu- 
cational commissions upon which has devolved 
the preliminary study of the proposed revision 
and the recommendation to the legislature of 
needed changes in the public statutes." 1 

The smallest political unit in the country is the 
school district, which arose because of the con- 
ditions of political life in early New England. It 
had the advantages of simplicity of political and 
educational machinery, and allowed the people to 
take effective and immediate action. The Massa- 
chusetts Act of 1647 na d declared the town the 
basis of school organization, but the district plan 
received legal sanction in 1 789. In time it proved 
unsatisfactory, its chief defects being : it was pro- 

a uniform list is adopted for the entire State. In California, the 
government publishes its own books, and the use of these is 
compulsory. 

1 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1909, p. 12. 



348 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

vincial and prevented growth of the educational 
spirit ; it was expensive ; it increased the number 
of school officers; it brought about injustice in 
taxation and in educational privilege ; and it pre- 
vented the formation and growth of a consist- 
ent policy in education. In 1882, Massachusetts 
abolished the district unit, as have more than a 
score of other States. Eight States now have 
legal provision for township organization and 
nineteen others have permissive legislation on 
the subject. Outside of New England, and par- 
ticularly in the South, the County has been the 
chief educational sub-unit. The County Boards 
are the chief authority in Maryland and Florida. 
In Virginia and Nevada, use is made of divisions 
still larger than the county. In California a 
majority of the members of the county boards 
must be certificated teachers. 

The district system, however, is still in favor 
except in New England and the South, on 
account of its simplicity and its bringing of the 
schools into close and intimate relations with 
the people. The States do not all administer the 
district in the same way, but in general it may be 
said that the taxpayers of the district meet peri- 



THE UNITED STATES 349 

odically and elect a trustee, or board of trustees 
of three or five members. These trustees direct 
the schools within certain limitations. They 
usually employ teachers, but have no supervisory 
or professional authority over them. Their chief 
responsibility is for the proper expenditure of 
school moneys. It may be seen that this duty 
brings the trustees and, through their election 
by them and reports to them, the people of the 
district into very intimate knowledge of the af- 
fairs of the school or schools in which they are 
all most closely interested. The report of a 
Pennsylvania district given on the following 
page is typical and indicates the details of school 
finance as they come closest to the people. 

In urban centers the school district usually 
becomes merged into the municipality, without, 
however, losing its corporate identity. It thus 
remains more or less independent of the city 
government, although there are a few excep- 
tions — notably Baltimore, Chicago, Syracuse, 
San Francisco, New Haven — where the Board 
of Education is not a body corporate. The chief 
characteristics of the typical city school board 
are: it is composed of some dozen members, 



Public School Financial Statement 

FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 1st. IOf/ 1> 



Whole Number of Schools .... ... 

Number of Teachers Employed 

Number of Pupils Enrolled in all the Schools 
Average Daily Attendance 






trt 



Amount of Tax Levied for .School Purposes % 

Amount of Tax Levied for Building Purposes, if any i 



SUO% tfZ 



Treasurer's Account—Money Received, 

Received from State Appropriation June 190 

Balance on Hand from last year ... , 

From Collector, including Taxes of all kinds 

From Loans, if any 

From County Treasurer, unseated Lands, Fines, ie . 

From Sales of Houses or Lands, If any 

From Dog Tax ... (i 

From all other sources 

Total Receipts 



Treasurer's Account-. Money Paid Out. 

For Purchasing Grounds, ff any 

For Building Houses, if any 

For Rent, Repairs. &c 

For Teachers' Wages «* ,, . 

Amount Paid Teachers for attending Institute • » . 

For Text Books 

Supplies other than Text Books 

For Fuel and Contingencies 

Fees of Collectors. % Treasurer, f //S. V7 

Salary of Secretary'' Expenses, Stationery, Postage, ic .• . . 

For Printing and Auditors. Fees . 

For Debt and Interest Paid, if any '. 

For Enforcing Compulsory Law 



£¥&J XT 

.2?0 /9 

lay/- 0a 

2s6 /s 

22 32. 

/¥7 32. 



7¥& /$ 

¥060 '00 

/¥0 DO 

/$£> M> 

/a 6 V<3 

//s ?y 

S3 co 

/2 ao 



For 



For all other Purposes aitd Sundry Expenses . . 2 82 ty2 

Total Money Paid Out .••-..> S88Q J/ 



I 

Resources and Liabilities. 

Cash on hand, If any . 

Amount due District, if any 

Amount due Treasurer, if any 

Total Debt of District, if any 



35* /S 



We hereby certify that we have examined the above and find it correct 



Witness our hands this 



7 



&L 






350 



THE UNITED STATES 351 

laymen, who serve without pay, on terms of two 
or three years ; it meets once or twice a month ; 
its duties are chiefly legislative ; it transfers its 
executive functions to professional appointees. 
There are, of course, variations on each of these 
points. For instance, the size of the board varies 
considerably from four (San Francisco) or five 
(Boston, Indianapolis, Rochester) to twenty or 
more. (New Orleans, 20; Chicago, 21; Phila- 
delphia, 21 ; Cincinnati, 27; Pittsburgh, 45 ; New 
York, 46.) The length of term ranges from two 
to seven years: three in Chicago, Philadelphia, 
Boston, Pittsburgh, Newark; four in Cleveland, 
Detroit, San Francisco, Cincinnati, New Orleans, 
Los Angeles ; five in New York ; six in St. 
Louis, Baltimore, Milwaukee, Minneapolis. In 
a very few cities the members receive remuner- 
ation. The method of selection, too, varies: mem- 
bers are appointed by the mayor, as in New 
York, Cincinnati, Jersey City; or by other 
authorities, as in Philadelphia, Washington, 
Richmond; or they are elected, by wards, as in 
Detroit, or at large, as in Rochester and Boston. 1 

1 See Harry E. Bard, "The City School District," New York, 
1909, for statutory provisions regarding organization and fiscal 



352 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The tendency is toward centralization, vesting 
appointing power in the mayor and holding him 
responsible for results. 

The administrative machinery above described 
in merest outline directs the schools for both ele- 
mentary and secondary education. The State 
universities are usually directed by governing 
boards independent of the rest of the educational 
system. In Michigan, the eight regents of the 
university are elected, two at a time, every other 
year. In Wisconsin, the board is appointed by 
the governor, one member from each Congres- 
sional district and two at large ; and in Minne- 
sota by the governor subject to confirmation by 
the Senate. In Nebraska, the board is chosen at 
a general election; and in Illinois it is elected on 
the state ticket. "It may be said that usually 
their authority is supreme, yet this authority they 
seldom see fit to use arbitrarily. Their decision 
is ultimate, yet usually they trust the Faculty. 
In its last analysis the management of a college 
rests absolutely in the Board of Trustees. To 

affairs, and for bibliography. Also, for discussion as to size of 
boards, personnel, etc., see Chancellor, "Our Schools," Chap. II, 
and Sogard, op. cit.,p. 6 et seq. 



THE UNITED STATES 353 

this Board the Faculty and students are respon- 
sible." 1 According to Dr. Eliot, their attention 
should be "directed chiefly to convincing the peo- 
ple of the State, and particularly the members of 
the legislature, first, of the usefulness of their uni- 
versity; secondly, of its merits and defects in 
comparison with the universities of other States ; 
and thirdly, of its urgent needs." 2 

1 Thwing, " College Administration," p. 22. 

2 Op. tit., p. 18. 



2A 



CHAPTER XXI 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

" In the reorganization of the schools [of Germany] to con- 
form to the civic ideal of education two main tendencies are 
noticeable : First, the centralization of the school system, the 
conversion of a vast collection of schools of all grades into a 
single system capable of direction, supervision and management 
by a central authority acting for the State ; second, the selec- 
tion of materials of instruction, the formation of courses of study 
and the methods of teaching best calculated to subserve the 
needs of the different classes of society while promoting the 
interests of the State." — Russell, "German Higher Schools," 
p. 86. 

Germany 

School direction in Germany is centralized, but 
the unit of administration is not the empire but 
the kingdom or corresponding division. The 
" only attempt made to unite the different States 
of the empire in any matter pertaining to school 
affairs" 1 was the appointment, in 1875, of an 
Imperial School Commission. This was com- 
posed of six professional members, one from each 

1 Russell, op. cit., p. 191. 
354 



OTHER COUNTRIES 355 

of the kingdoms and two representing the other 
States. Its chief duty was to advise the imperial 
chancellor as to what schools might with propriety 
be given the privilege of granting the certificate 
freeing the holder from one year of military 
service. It "succeeded in prevailing upon the 
four kingdoms — Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wurtemberg — to reform their classical schools in 
1 891-1893 by adopting new programs and time- 
tables in their gymnasia." 1 

As it stands to-day, each State is supreme in its 
own schools. Prussia, foremost in educational 
affairs as in imperial politics, may be studied as 
typical. All schools are under the supervision of 
royal authorities. Since 1772, private schools 
have been subject to the same inspection by State 
officials as are the public schools. Except for the 
fact that no part of their support comes from 
public funds, private schools are virtually a part of 
the State system. 

" The tendency in Germany to regulate every- 
thing that can be regulated applies to the control 
of public education as to everything else. Little 
chance is allowed anywhere to individual initia- 

1 Hughes-Klemm, op. cit., p. 159. 



356 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

tive ; small credence is given to the ability of the 
masses to act aright. The German theory is that 
it is better to avoid mistakes than to make them 
even for the sake of gaining experience." 1 De- 
tailed regulations are issued covering the selec- 
tion of a school site, the construction of build- 
ings, the arrangement and equipment of the 
classroom, seating, ventilating, lighting, etc. The 
Supervising Architect visees the plans of local 
architects and seeks to come between the tax- 
payers and the pupils in the interests of both. 
He is free from all political influence and an 
expert in his profession. 

The central educational authority is the Minister 
der Geistlichen, Unterrickts- und Medicinal- A n- 
gelegenheiten (Minister of Ecclesiastical, Educa- 
tional, and Medical Affairs), who is a cabinet 
officer, responsible only to the crown, by whom he 
is appointed and retained. He has charge of the 
financial affairs of his ministry and represents it 
in parliament. He is the court of last resort in 
appeals from the decisions of lower departmental 
officers. With royal approval, he appoints sub- 
ordinate officials ; he confers titles upon teachers, 

1 Russell, op. cit., p. 189. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 357 

and, with certain exceptions, ratifies appointments 
and makes promotions. 

The ministry is divided into three departments, 
of which education is one. This department is 
presided over by an Under Secretary and two 
chief assistants. These officers are assisted in 
the general administration of the school system 
by Vortragende Rate (special counselors), some 
twenty in number. The department controls ex- 
amination requirements, determines the course of 
study, regulates tuition fees, fixes salaries, and 
pensions and retires teachers. Within the de- 
partment are two main subdivisions, each under a 
Director; the first concerned with the common 
and auxiliary schools, 1 normal schools, and high 
schools for girls ; the second, with higher educa- 
tion, chiefly in secondary schools and universities. 

The first step toward a State school system in Germany was 
taken by Saxony, in 1528, providing for a uniform system of 
schools throughout the electorate. 

In Prussia, in 1794, Frederick William II issued the Attge- 
meine Landrecht, the charts upon which are based all school or- 
dinances and regulations. The most important articles provide : 

Schools and universities are state institutions charged with 
the instruction of youth in useful information and scientific 

1 The Fortbildungsschulen are under the direction of the Handels- 
ministerium (Ministry of Trade and Industry) . 



358 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

knowledge . . . and may be founded only with the knowledge 
and consent of the State. 

All public schools and educational institutions are under the 
supervision of the State, and are at all times subject to its 
examination and inspection. No one shall be denied ad- 
mission to the public schools on account of his religious belief. 
. . . Public school children cannot be compelled to attend 
religious instruction at variance with their own creed. 

Public schools designed to give instruction in higher arts 
and sciences enjoy all rights of corporate bodies, — these 
vested in governmental boards in accordance with existing 
school regulations of the district. 

Boards appointed by the State are charged with immediate 
direction and supervision of schools. 

Where the appointment of teachers does not rest with 
certain persons or corporations because of foundations or 
special privileges it belongs to the State. . . . No important 
change in organization or methods of instruction can be made 
without knowledge and consent of provincial school boards. 

Only persons of sufficient knowledge, good morals, and 
sound judgment can be chosen for supervising officers. 

In 1817, the Bureau of Education, which had been in- 
cluded in the Interior Department, was made an independent 
ministry as it stands to-day. 

In 1825, the provincial school boards were organized. " At 
this point the schools were finally separated from the church, 
and State control was assured." In 1850, it was decreed that 
" all religious organizations shall order and administer their 
own affairs independently (subject to general laws of State, 
made clear by special enactment, 1873) and shall remain in 
enjoyment of all their educational and charitable enterprises 
and foundations." 



OTHER COUNTRIES 359 

The subdivisions of the kingdom are the 
provinces, of which there are thirteen. 1 Each 
province is in turn divided into Regierungs- 
bezirke, thirty-six in all, corresponding to our 
counties. In each county there is an Abteilung 
fur Kirchen und Schulen (department for 
churches and schools), with a county board, 
presided over by the County President, and 
composed of county counselors and professional 
members. This board has jurisdiction over ele- 
mentary and middle schools, limited to super- 
vising the conduct of teachers, granting leaves 
of absence, observing in the schools, auditing 
accounts, and directing the operation of the 
school laws and ministerial regulations. 

Each Regierung is divided into Kreise, or 
townships. When cities or other local organi- 
zations establish schools and provide for their 
support, local school boards arise, charged with 
their direction. The membership of such a 
Schuldeputation, in rural districts called the 
Schulvorstand, is provided for, in general, by 

1 More properly, twelve provinces and the principality of Hohen- 
zollern. The directive body of the province is entirely a profes- 
sional one and so is treated in the chapter on Supervision. 



360 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the law of July 28, 1906, concerning the main- 
tenance of public elementary schools, taking 
effect April 1, 1908. The board shall consist 
of (1) one to three members of the executive 
officers of the city (assistant mayors, aldermen, 
etc.) appointed by the mayor; (2) the same 
number of members of the city council, elected 
by the council ; (3) at least the same number of 
men " well acquainted with educational school 
systems," among whom there shall be at least 
one school principal or one elementary school 
teacher; (4) the parish pastor of the Protestant 
or Catholic church ranking highest according 
to length of service; (5) if there are twenty or 
more Jewish children of school age, the rabbi 
oldest in service. All elections or appointments 
are for a term of six years. The powers of these 
local school boards are limited principally to the 
choice of the kind of school, the nomination of 
teachers, and the direction of certain external 
affairs, such as the managing of the school prop- 
erty, the order and equipment of school premises, 
regulation of tuition fees, scholarships, etc. The 
State schools are " in no wise beholden to local 
authorities." 



OTHER COUNTRIES 361 

"When a city will establish a new [secondary] school, it 
enters into covenant with the State to house it properly, to 
provide suitable furnishings and equipment, and to support it 
in a becoming way from year to year. But first it devolves 
upon the municipality to show that the elementary education 
of the city is on a satisfactory basis, and that there is genuine 
need of a secondary school. The approval of the Minister of 
Education — and nothing can be done without his approval — 
is also conditioned on special reports made to him by govern- 
ment officials on such matters as, for example, the town's 
ability to support the proposed institution, and whether it might 
tend to weaken some other school already established. Ap- 
proval once granted is further conditioned on the proper exe- 
cution of essential details : the school site must be satisfactory ; 
the plans and specifications of the building must be submitted 
to the supervising architect of the province and passed by him ; 
the denominational character of the school, on which depends 
the selection of a faculty, must conform to the religious belief 
of the majority of the scholars ; the proposed furnishings and 
equipment down to the drinking cups and blackboard erasers 
must be of proper quality and amount. Nothing goes unregu- 
lated to which a regulation can be at all applied." 1 

The status of the universities is a peculiar one. 
They " occupy a dual position : on the one hand, 
they are State institutions, on the other, they have 
the character of free scientific corporations. As 
State institutions they are founded, supported, and 
administered by the government. From it they 

1 Russell, op. cit., p. 144. 



362 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

receive their organization and laws. ... In Prus- 
sia the faculty statutes are prescribed by the min- 
istry of education. The government also defines 
the function of the universities and grants them 
their privileges." * And yet these institutions 
have a legal standing as independent corpora- 
tions of scholars. As Dr. Russell says, " It is a 
curious and instructive fact that such a democratic 
institution as the German university, pledged as it 
is to absolute freedom and independence in all its 
work, can exist in a German State." 2 

France 
Centralization of directive authority finds its 
most extreme expression in France. The head 
of the entire national system is the Ministre de 
V Instruction Publique et des Beaux- Arts (Minis- 
ter of Public Instruction and Fine Arts), the 
office dating from 1828. He is appointed by the 
President of the Republic and is directly respon- 
sible for the entire conduct of the educational af- 
fairs of the nation. He has the direct power 
of appointment of all the faculty of the normal 
schools, and of the directors and all regular fully 

1 Paulsen, op. at., p. 76. 

2 Op. cit., p. 413. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 363 

certificated teachers in the higher primary schools. 
He is directly responsible for the funds placed 
at the disposal of his department, and no expense 
may be undertaken nor money paid except on his 
order. The department consists of thirty bu- 
reaus, seventeen of which are concerned with 
education: one constituting the cabinet of the 
ministry, five dealing with higher education, five 
with secondary education, five with elementary 
education, and one with accounts. The Minis- 
ter has three different advisory boards who coun- 
sel him respectively on legal, administrative, and 
pedagogic questions. 

The legal board is the Comit'e du Contentieux 
(Committee on Litigation), of sixteen members, all 
lawyers, appointed by the Minister. Although the 
Minister is under no legal obligation to consult this 
board, or to follow their advice, he is quite ready to 
avail himself of their counsel on legal questions. 

The administrative board is the Conseil Sup'e- 
rieur de V Instruction Publique (Superior Coun- 
cil), composed of over fifty members, drawn from 
the department, and some appointed by the Presi- 
dent of the Republic and the others elected by 
the teaching force of all grades. This board 



364 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

meets but twice a year and details most of its 
work to a Permanent Section, composed of fifteen 
of its members. The Superior Council has ad- 
ministrative, judicial, and disciplinary powers over 
the whole educational system. It is the one of 
the three boards toward which the Minister is 
legally responsible. He must consult it in re- 
gard to the regulation of examinations, the con- 
ferring of degrees, the selection of textbooks, and 
certain other matters, and must conform with 
its recommendations. 

The pedagogic board is the Comite Consultatif 
(Consulting Committee), a professional body com- 
posed of three sections, one for each grade of edu- 
cation. Its function is solely advisory. 

Origin of the System. — " At the time of the Revolution of 
1789, education was being eagerly discussed. Its reform was 
urgent. In the chaos of the period education was not lost 
sight of, but events moved too quickly for anything definite to 
be done. But the general upheaval had so loosened the whole 
fabric of society that it was an easy task for Napoleon I to 
place the whole of the national education in the hands of the 
State. There were no vested interests to conciliate. There 
was a clear slate to write upon. Such conditions are not likely 
to occur again in any country." 1 

1 Report of an Inquiry into the Conditions of Service of Teachers 
in English and Foreign Secondary Schools, London, 1910, p. 37. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 365 

France is divided politically into ninety de- 
partments. The governing body of the depart- 
ment is an elected General Council, which makes 
all appropriations, including those for educational 
purposes not provided for by the national gov- 
ernment. The expenses are chiefly for building 
equipment for mandatory normal schools and 
such other schools as they choose to conduct. 
The school board for the department is the 
Conseil d'epartemental, four of whose fourteen 
members are members of the General Council. 
This board is the financial agent of the General 
Council in school matters, and, having general 
direction over certain administrative details, " ex- 
ercises no little influence over the educational 
affairs of its department." 

The smallest subdivision of the department 
is the commune, and each commune has a Com- 
mission Scolaire, a local school board having 
little real powers and yet able to further the 
work of the schools in certain directions. The 
Maire of the commune is the President of this 
board and is responsible for enforcing the com- 
pulsory education law. Communes are grouped 
into cantons, for each of which the departmental 



366 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

council appoints a delegate who has the right of 
visitation of primary schools. 

Great Britain and Ireland 

As France stands preeminently for centraliza- 
tion, so does England stand for decentralization. 
No direct authority over schools is assumed by the 
government, but such authority is exercised in prac- 
tice by a system of financial aid. This aid is con- 
ditioned upon compliance by each school with 
certain regulations; thus is the work of the schools 
standardized without the surrender by them of 
any of the " rights " so dear to Englishmen. 

" Before 1833 the government of Great Britain did not con- 
cern itself with public education. Since the Middle Ages the 
principle had prevailed in the British Isles that the State as such 
had no right to interfere in the educational affairs of the people." 1 

"The Act of 1870 divided England for educational purposes 
into districts, which were not necessarily conterminous with 
districts formed for political purposes. It charged the 
Government with seeing that in each of these districts there 
were ample provisions existing for the education of all chil- 
dren. If this provision was already made by voluntary schools, 
it protected these schools in their possession by preventing the 
establishment of any other. 

"If, however, the voluntary schools did not amply supply 
the need, it then enacted that the qualified electors of the dis- 

1 Hughes-Klemm, op. cit., p. 481. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 367 

trict should institute a school board, and that this board should 
establish schools sufficient to give public elementary education 
to every child between the ages of five and fourteen when the 
schools already in existence did not educate." 1 

In 1899, there was created the National 
Board of Education for England and Wales, 
composed of certain members of the government 
— the Lord President of the Council, appointed 
by the King and sitting in the cabinet, the five 
Secretaries of State, the First Lord of the 
Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
The board maintains a permanent staff, con- 
sisting of a Secretary-General, and Accountant- 
General, four Assistant Secretaries — - one for 
each different grade of education, — and a 
Director of Special Inquiries and Reports. 
The President of the board receives a salary 
of $10,000; the Secretary, $9000; and the As- 
sistant Secretaries, $6000. In 1907 the work 
of the board was separated into two divisions, 
one for England and one for Wales, each with 
its division head responsible to the President 
of the Board. This board administers the Par- 
liamentary grants upon the basis of satisfactory 
work being done in the schools as determined 

1 Sharpless, op. cit., p. 16. 



368 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

by its own inspectors. It issues regulations, 
upon compliance with which by the schools the 
receipt of grants depends, in regard to curricula, 
teaching staff, equipment, attendance, school 
meetings, etc. The Board of Education has an 
advisory board, similar to the French Comite 
Consultatif, known as the Consultative Com- 
mittee, consisting of eighteen members, two 
thirds of whom are representatives of educa- 
tional institutions. It reports and advises on 
matters referred to it by the board. 

Local administration is in the hands of a local 
governing body, organized under act of 1902, 
known as County Council, or Borough Council, 
or Union District Council. The work of school 
direction is done chiefly through committees of 
from fifteen to fifty, each of which must contain 
at least one woman. The number of separate 
local authorities for educational affairs, July 31, 
1 908, was : — 

Councils of administrative counties . . . .62 
Councils of county boroughs ...... 74 

Self-governing municipal boroughs 137 

Self-governing urban districts 54 

Scilly Islands 1 

Total 328 



OTHER COUNTRIES 369 

In Scotland, general control is vested in the 
Department of Education, instituted in 1872, the 
head of which is the Secretary for Scotland. 
The local unit is the parish. Elected local 
school boards have large directive powers over 
elementary and secondary education — may deal 
with neglectful parents, maintain medical inspec- 
tion, make special provision for auxiliary educa- 
tion, etc. 

In Ireland, since 1845, elementary education 
has been under the direction of the Commis- 
sioners of National Education in Ireland. The 
Intermediate Educational Board examines can- 
didates from secondary schools and distributes 
grants. A third authority, the Department of 
Agricultural and Technical Instruction, directs 
technical secondary and scientific education. 

Other Countries 

Austria. — Under Ministry of Worship and 
Instruction. 

Belgium. — Public education regulated by law. 
Minister of Interior and Instruction. All ele- 
mentary communal teaching directed by the 
communes. 



370 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Denmark. — Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs 
and Public Instruction. 

Greece. — Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs and 
Instruction. 

Hungary. — Ministry of Worship and Instruc- 
tion. 

Italy. — Control entirely in the hands of the 
State, under Ministry of Public Education. 
Even private persons must have permission to 
manage a school. 

Netherlands. — Minister of the Interior. 

Norway. — Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs 
and Public Instruction. 

Portugal. — Ministry of the Interior. 

Russia. — Chiefly under Ministry of Public In- 
struction. Nation divided into fifteen educa- 
tional districts. Many special schools under 
other ministries, e.g. War, Agriculture, Justice, 
Commerce and Industry. 

Spain. — Has a minister of Public Instruction 
and Fine Arts and a Council of Education, but 
renders little State aid. 

Sweden. — Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs and 
Education. 

Switzerland, — Decentralized ; government by 
cantons. 



OTHER COUNTRIES 371 

Australia. — Each State directs its schools 
through an Educational Department. 

Canada. — Direction by provincial govern- 
ments. 

Argentina. — Each State manages its schools 
independently. National government controls 
those at Federal capital and in national territo- 
ries, through Minister of Justice and Public In- 
struction, and National Council of Education, 
salaried, and appointed by the President of the 
Republic. 

Bolivia. — Modeled after French organiza- 
tion. Ministry of Justice and Public Instruc- 
tion. 

Brazil. — Elementary and secondary schools 
controlled by each State; higher education by 
the Federal government. 

Chili. — Ministry of Justice and Public In- 
struction directs primary schools ; Council of 
Public Instruction together with the President 
of the University of Chili directs secondary 
schools. 

Colombia. — Minister of Public Instruction. 

Ecuador. — Minister of Public Instruction, Wor- 
ship, and Justice. 



372 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Uruguay. — Minister of Agriculture, Industry, 
Public Instruction, and Works. 

Japan. — Entirely under national control; ad- 
ministered by Minister of State for Education, 
who is directly or indirectly in charge of whole 
educational system of the empire. 



PART III. SCHOOL SUPERVISION 
Chapter XXII. School Supervision 



CHAPTER XXII 

SCHOOL SUPERVISION 

" Every child, parent, and educational interest stands in di- 
rect touch with the superintendent. He must shape his con- 
duct from the standpoint of the child, as reflected, it may be, 
through the parent; he must justify his theory and his practice 
before the highest court of public appeal, — the people them- 
selves." — Tompkins, " School Management," p. 89. 

United States 

It is becoming increasingly the practice for 
the directive authorities or boards to delegate 
to professional officers the exercise of executive 
functions and the initiative as to technical pro- 
gram. The boards of education are coming to 
deal chiefly with matters external to the schools, 
buildings, equipment, finance, etc. As regards 
internal affairs, they lay down general regulations 
and then transfer to the professional experts the 
responsibility for properly supervising the detailed 
work of the schools. 

Just as there are, in the United States, boards 
for school direction for the various-sized units of 
administration, so are there corresponding grades 

375 



376 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of supervising officials with differing areas of ju- 
risdiction. The office of school superintendent is 
but a century old and originated in the larger 
administrational units. The first State superin- 
tendency was established by New York, in 1815; 
the first county superintendency, also by New 
York, in 1841 ; and the first city superintend- 
ency by Buffalo and Louisville, in 1837. 1 

" Rural school supervision, such as it is, is the result of long 
growth. The Massachusetts Act of 1 789 charged the ministers 
of the Gospel and selectmen of the several towns or districts 
with the supervision of schools." 2 Their tasks were both di- 
rective and supervisory. As their duties multiplied and be- 
came more complex, they were separated and assigned respec- 
tively to school boards and school superintendents. 

All of the States have a supervisory educational 
officer. His title varies from State to State. 3 In 

1 1839, St. Louis, Providence ; 1852, New York ; 1853, Brooklyn ; 
1854, Chicago; 1866, Albany; 1869, Washington; 1883, Phila- 
delphia. 

2 Foght, op. cit. y p. 51. 

8 State Superintendent of Education : Alabama, South Caro- 
lina, Vermont. 

Secretary of State Board of Education : Connecticut, Dela- 
ware. 

State School Commissioner : Georgia. 

State Superintendent of Public Schools: Maine, Missouri, 
Wisconsin. 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 377 

a majority of the States he is elected in the same 
way and on the same terms as is the Governor. 
In some he is appointed: by the Legislature, as in 
Virginia, Vermont, Rhode Island; by the Governor, 
as in New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania ; 
by the Board of Education, as in Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, New York. His duties vary, but, 
in general, they may be said to be administrative, 
supervisory, statistical, and advisory. Among 
those specifically assigned to him in one State or 
another are: the distribution of the State school 
money; the certification of teachers; general 
supervision of the entire State school system ; 
the making of annual reports which are in the 
nature of advisory messages to the legislature ; 
the filling of vacancies in subordinate grades of 
superintendents; the enforcement of the compul- 
sory education laws ; the preparation of courses 
of study. The duties of the superintendents of 

State Superintendent of Public Education : Louisiana, Mary- 
land, Mississippi. 

State Commissioner of Education : Massachusetts, New York. 
State Commissioner of Common Schools : Ohio. 
Commissioner of Public Schools : Rhode Island. 
State Superintendent of Free Schools : West Virginia. 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction : all other states. 



378 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the several States, while varying greatly, still have 
many features in common ; and the tendency is 
toward still greater uniformity. Among the 
instruments working toward this end are the 
Conferences of State Superintendents, the first 
of which was held in 1908. 

Similar divergencies exist as to the functions 
and manner of selection of the County Superin- 
tendents. In most Northern and Western States 
they are elected for terms of from two to four 
years. They are appointed — by the County 
Board, in some Southern States; by the State 
Board, in New Jersey ; by the Governor, in Dela- 
ware ; by the County Court, in Tennessee and 
Arkansas ; by the State Superintendent in Ala- 
bama. Their chief function is to standardize and 
harmonize the work of the schools, acting as the 
intermediary between the State authorities and 
the schools, between them and the local boards, 
and between the lay boards and the professional 
employees. 

The functions of the City Superintendent also 
vary : he is the executive officer of the Board of 
Education ; he represents the interests of the 
teachers and pupils before the board ; he in- 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 379 

spects and supervises the detailed work of the 
teachers ; he certificates teachers ; he appoints 
and dismisses teachers, or else nominates them 
to the board or recommends their dismissal; he 
recommends courses of study ; he selects text- 
books and other internal equipment ; he arranges 
for the grading and promotion of pupils ; he ad- 
ministers the compulsory education law. 

The status of the superintendent, as it should be, is set forth 
by the special commission which investigated the schools of 
Baltimore, as follows : — 

" Educational Management — The head of this department 
is the superintendent of schools, together with his corps of as- 
sistants. He should be selected with great care, and from the 
nation as a whole rather than from a single city or State. Once 
selected, he should be clothed with authority commensurate with 
his responsibility, and then expected to get the desired results. 

" The independence of the superintendent as the chief ex- 
ecutive officer in educational affairs should be recognized by 
the members of the legislative branch, and no member of the 
school board should seek to interfere with him in any way in 
the exercise of his duties as defined by law and regulation. 
The rule of mutual respect and helpfulness should prevail be- 
tween the two branches of the school department. A superin- 
tendent should not attempt to carry out any policy that has not 
been previously approved by the board, nor to dictate policies, 
for his function in the framing of new policies ends with recom- 
mendation. Board members, on the other hand, should not 
have any direct participation in affairs which are within the 



380 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

field of executive action and discretion. The superintendent 
and his assistants, after being given a fair opportunity to dis- 
charge their proper functions, stand or fall according to the 
value of the results which they obtain." 

In some cases, the superintendent gathers 
around him an Advisory Council of principals ; in 
some cities, assistant superintendents, or a board 
of associate superintendents, are provided for. 
In Boston, the Board of Superintendents consists 
of seven members; in Philadelphia there are six- 
teen, in Chicago nine, and in New York eight 
associates and twenty-six district superintendents. 1 
City superintendents are elected on terms rang- 
ing from one to seven years and receive salaries 
of from one to ten thousand dollars. 

Leading cities in each group are : — 

Electing superintendent for one year : Atlanta, Chicago, Des 
Moines, Philadelphia, Providence ; for tivo years, Louisville, 
Manchester, N.H., Columbus, O., Wheeling, W. Va. ; for three 
years, Denver, Worcester, Mass., Detroit, Minneapolis, Pitts- 
burgh, Milwaukee ; for four years, San Francisco, Jacksonville, 
Fla., Indianapolis, St. Louis, Buffalo ; for five years, New Haven, 
Ithaca, N.Y., Cleveland, Cincinnati ; for six years, Boston, 
New York ; for seven years, Elizabeth, NJ. 

The highest salaries are: $10,000, Chicago, New York; 
$7500, Philadelphia; $7000, St. Louis ; $6500, Seattle; $6000, 

1 For the principles of administration applicable to the office of 
superintendent, see Chancellor, " Our Schools, 1 ' Chap. V. 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 38 1 

Boston, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Denver, Detroit, Jersey City, 
Milwaukee, Newark, Pittsburgh; $5800, Indianapolis; $5500, 
Minneapolis; $5000, Baltimore, Bayonne, N.J., Buffalo, Des 
Moines, Louisville, Los Angeles, Newton, Mass., Omaha, 
Rochester, St. Paul, Washington, Yonkers. 

Germany 

Each Prussian province has its Provinzial- 
schulkollegium. This provincial board is com- 
posed of the President of the Province, who is ex 
officio chairman, and of from three to five In- 
spectors, who are in effect superintendents. They 
are appointed by the crown, upon the nomination 
of the Minister, from a selected list of secondary 
school principals. They hold office until retired 
in regular order. They are assigned, at least one 
for the Gymnasien, one for the Realschulen, and 
one for the Volkssckulen. Their powers and 
duties are comprehensive: they supervise all 
pedagogic matters ; they revise plans, ordinances, 
and regulations ; they pass upon textbooks in use 
and compile new ones, which are printed by the 
consent of the Minister; they appoint, dismiss, 
discipline, and suspend teachers ; and in general, 
they keep the central department informed as 
to all school affairs within the province. Dean 



382 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Russell characterizes these provincial boards as 
" the mainstay of the Prussian school system." 

Subordinate to these inspectors are the Kreis- 
sckulinspektoren, the superintendents in the coun- 
ties, little more than one fourth of whom are 
engaged exclusively in the work of supervision, 
the others being clergymen, school principals, etc. 
There are, too, Ortsschulinspektoren (local in- 
spectors), generally the local pastors, with no 
technical preparation for educational work. The 
General Superintendent of the Evangelical church 
and the Catholic Bishops have the privilege and 
duty of visiting every secondary school once in 
six years and reporting on religious conditions. 
Every city employs its Stadtschulrat, professional 
superintendent, who has general supervisory 
powers. The universities are supervised by the 
Ministry through a resident Curator. 

The form of school supervision in the other 
kingdoms much resembles that of Prussia, except 
that in Saxony there are no County Inspectors. 

France 

The Minister of Education being a political 
appointee and not a trained educator, the actual 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 383 

professional executive heads of the system are the 
three Directors who are in charge of the bureaus 
of education, one for each large group of the 
system, elementary, secondary, and higher. 

" They are all conspicuous for their educational 
qualifications, for they have gradually made their 
way up the line, and promotion in France is slow, 
but merited." 1 They are usually selected from 
among the university professors. 

For purposes of educational supervision, the 
ninety departments of France are grouped into 
seventeen academies. At the head of each academy 
is a Rector, appointed by the President of the 
Republic, who has supervisory charge of the edu- 
cational system of all grades. He is the head of 
the university in his academy, each of the four 
faculties having its Dean, and he is also president 
ex officio of the administrative board of each lyc'ee 
and college. 

The Minister of Education is ex officio Rector of the Univer- 
sity of Paris, but the university actually is governed by the 
Vice Rector, owing to the many other imperative duties of the 
minister and the lay and political character of his office. Thus, 
the Vice Rector of the University of Paris is nominally out- 
ranked by the rectors of all the other universities, and yet he 

1 Farrington, "Secondary Schools," p. 91. 



384 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

is the most powerful of all through his relations with the gov- 
ernment. 

For general purposes of inspection the nation 
is divided into seven inspection districts, to which 
are sent, by annual reassignment, eleven or more 
Inspec tears generaux. These general inspectors 
are appointed by the President on the nomination 
of the Minister. They are chosen from the teach- 
ing ranks of the secondary schools or universities, 
and receive salaries approximately of $2400 and 
expenses. Their duties are to visit the normal 
and primary schools, to report on the work of the 
subordinate inspectors, and to report generally 
upon the progress of instruction. 

Each academy has its staff of Inspecteurs 
cTacademie, of whom there are in all about one for 
each of the ninety departments. These inspectors 
are appointed by the Minister and are chosen 
from among university professors, heads of lyc'ees 
or colleges, secondary school professors of high 
standing, and primary inspectors. Their salaries 
range from $1300 to $1600. They are the active 
supervisors of the secondary and elementary 
schools of their districts, though their supervision 
of the secondary schools is practically but nominal. 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 385 

Subordinate to these are the Primary Inspectors, 
about five to each academy inspector, appointed by 
the Minister upon competitive examination. Upon 
these devolves most of the supervision of the 
elementary schools, each having some 250 teach- 
ers under his charge. 

England 

In England the Board of Education employs 
a Chief Inspector for each of various branches of 
education ; that for secondary schools is paid 
$6000, and those for elementary and technical 
schools, $5000. Subordinate to them are inspec- 
tors who visit and examine the schools chiefly for 
the purpose of determining whether the conditions 
upon which the annual grants are made have been 
fulfilled. They are grouped into grades : Divi- 
sional Inspectors, on salaries of $4000 to $4500 ; 
Inspectors, $2000 to #4000; and Sub- Inspectors, 
$1000 to $2600; and for secondary schools, 
Staff Inspectors, $4000 to $4500, and Inspectors, 
$2000 to $4000. " The powers of an inspector 
are extremely wide. He may visit an elementary 
school in his district at any time and as frequently 
(or infrequently) as he likes. He must approve 

2C 



386 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the syllabus of instruction, and he may require 
brief notes of lessons to be produced, or such 
other evidence as will show that the lessons have 
been duly prepared. No annual Parliamentary 
grant is paid on behalf of the school unless the 
report of the inspector is satisfactory. His report, 
after passing through the hands of his chief and 
those of the examiners at the central office, is 
returned to the school, and permanent record of it 
is made in the log book. Inspectorial power is 
not so great in secondary and technical as in ele- 
mentary schools. Still, the inspector must approve 
the curriculum and certify that the instruction is 
satisfactory from a hygienic point of view." 2 

1 Peter Sandiford, "The Training of Teachers in England and 
Wales," New York, 191 o, p. 13. 



PART IV. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

Chapter XXIII. School Management 



CHAPTER XXIII 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

" It must be remembered that the principal is the key of the 
educational system, and fortunate is that school system in which, 
in every school, there is a competent principal without the ad- 
ditional obligations of a regular full-day class teacher." — Chan- 
cellor, " Our Schools," p. 103. 

" In other words, the principal or the superintendent may 
dominate every classroom under his supervision, almost without 
regard to the limitations of the individual teachers. Typical 
schools in every city system bear compelling testimony to this 
fact. The principal is the school." — Bagley, "Craftsmanship 
in Teaching," p. 75. 

The grouping of a number of classes within the 
same building has led to the need for an executive 
head for the group. In America, when infant edu- 
cation is undertaken by the public school system, 
it ordinarily is annexed to an elementary school 
organization. Other than in this case the unit of 
administration is usually limited to classes of one 
grade of school organization, although two are 
sometimes found. For instance, in smaller towns 
in America, the high school is generally added to 
one, usually the largest, of the elementary schools, 

389 



390 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and the principal has charge of both schools. In 
fact, he is frequently also the superintendent of the 
entire system. Again, in Germany, some of the 
Gymnasien have the preparatory Vorgymnastum 
attached. Also, in the United States, a few col- 
leges have preparatory departments, 1 but abroad 
the higher institutions do not undertake secondary 
work. 

Thus there have developed the special problems 
of administration with the single school as the 
unit ; and thus has arisen that phase of the science 
and art of School Administration which we term 
School Management. The "school" ranges in size 
from the two-class rural elementary school to the 
city elementary or high school of fifty classes or 
the college or university with its various depart- 
ments and its faculty numbering scores, or even 
hundreds. The problems of all the schools of 
this wide range have a certain character in com- 
mon, and thus must the successful heads of all 

1 This is more frequently the case in private institutions than in 
public. In 1909-1910, of the 938,437 pupils reported as receiving 
secondary instruction in public schools, 12,339, or J 3 P er cent, were 
in preparatory departments of universities and colleges ; whereas, 
of the 172,956 pupils in private schools, 53,703, or 31 per cent, were 
in such preparatory departments. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 391 

have certain executive qualifications. Increase in 
the size of the unit, however, demands a greater 
degree of executive ability, and each grade of 
school requires a special quality of this ability. 
Thus many a successful director of a college with 
a faculty of ten would be appalled by the adminis- 
trative details of a fifty-classroom high school, 
and the average university president and the 
average elementary school principal would both 
make " a mess of it " if they were to exchange 
positions. 

It is not in place in this volume to discuss the 
principles and methods applying to proper school 
management, concerning which a growing bibli- 
ography is fast forming. 1 We must content our- 
selves with a study of the position of the school 
"manager," briefly noting how he is regarded in 

1 Including, already cited : for elementary schools, Arnold, 
Bagley, Baldwin, Chancellor, Perry; for secondary schools, J. F. 
Brown, Chancellor, Hollister; for colleges, Eliot, Thwing. Also, 
Chauncey P. Colgrove, "The Teacher and the School," Scribner, 
1910; Samuel T. Dutton, "School Management," Scribner, 1904; 
Charles B. Gilbert, "The School and its Life," Silver, Burdett, 
1906; Levi Seeley, "A New School Management," Hinds and 
Noble, 1903; Arnold Tompkins, "The Philosophy of School 
Management," Ginn, 1898; E. E. White, "School Management," 
American Book Co., 1893 ; William T. Foster, " Administration of 
the College Curriculum," Houghton, Mifflin, 1911. 



392 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the countries whose schools have enlisted our 
interest. 

United States 

If a generalization might be ventured, it would 
be to the effect that the headship of a school 
is more sought after by those in the ranks in 
America than on the continent. On the one 
hand the units of administration here are larger, 
and on the other, the foreign executive is more 
a clerical than an inspirational head. Where, 
as in Germany, the teachers universally are 
thoroughly grounded in the science and art of 
their profession, and the principal is little, if any, 
better trained or equipped than his teachers, it is 
natural that the principalship is not quite so highly 
rated as a prize. In the United States, the prin- 
cipalship is invariably regarded, at least theoreti- 
cally, as a position demanding higher professional 
qualifications than those of the teacher. 1 The 

1 In this respect, the position differs from that of the superin- 
tendent. Very few of the State superintendencies have any rigid 
professional requirements for eligibility. In the cities, too, the 
eligibility requirements for superintendents are frequently less than 
for principals. Compare this with the French system where every 
succeeding executive position up to (but not including) the Minister 
of Education is obtained only upon officially demonstrated special 
fitness. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 393 

thought is that, in order to be the inspirational 
influence in the school that he should be, the 
principal should be as well prepared as any of his 
teachers, and in addition should have the peculiar 
qualities that make for leadership. Substantial 
financial recognition is made of the position, prin- 
cipals receiving salaries averaging eighty per cent 
higher than those of his teachers. 1 

In the headships of the American colleges is 
found the highest type of executive management. 
The title of President is that given in most 
American colleges, though Chancellor and Pro- 
vost are in limited use. In the early days the 
chief qualification was ecclesiastical, the college 

1 In the Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pen- 
sions of Public School Teachers in the United States to the National 
Council of Education, National Educational Association, 1905, statis- 
tics are collated as to the salaries of teachers in the high and ele- 
mentary schools of the cities of 8000 population and over. This 
report shows that 576 high school principals average a salary of 
$1869 and 8023 high school teachers average $1046. Also, 6213 
elementary school principals average $1189 and 70,230 teachers, 
$661 . This shows an increment to the principal of 79 per cent in 
high schools and 80 per cent in elementary schools. The difference 
is more marked in the larger cities, the increment in the cities of 
1,000,000 population being 127 per cent for high school principals 
and 152 per cent for elementary school principals, whereas the 
corresponding percentages in cities of 8000 to 10,000 are 80 per 
cent and 49 per cent. 



394 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

presidents almost invariably being clergymen. 
These were succeeded by the scholastic type, but 
to-day, while it is assumed that the president will 
have had a scholastic foundation and successful 
experience in the faculty, his primary qualification 
must be marked executive ability. The rewards 
of the man who measures up to this position are 
great, chiefly in recognition, status, and influence, 
and also financially, when compared with his 
fellow teachers. 

" The number of administrators who are masters both of 
profound and extensive policies and of slight particulars is 
small. When the administrator attempts to do both services, 
one of three things usually happens ; either policies suffer, or 
details are neglected, or the administrator dies and the admin- 
istration breaks down." 1 Dr. Eliot is cited as a notable 
exception. 

Dr. Thwing, in an interesting chapter, 2 discusses the College 
President. He says he may maintain any one of six relations 
with the faculty, trustees, students, alumni, and public, viz. : 
conflict, separateness, subjection, mastery, cooperation, devo- 
tion. He concludes by naming seven " opportunities " open to 
the president of the American college : of living with youth ; 
of living with scholars and gentlemen ; of meeting the best 

1 Person, op. at., p. 24. 

2 In "College Administration, 1 ' p. 49. See also, William D. 
Hyde, "The College Man and the College Woman," Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1906, for interesting chapter (XIV) entitled "The Six Part- 
ners in College Administration." 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 395 

people on their best side; of uniting the executive and the 
scholastic, the practical and the theoretical; of transmitting 
wealth into character ; of associating one's life and work with a 
lasting institution ; and in doing somewhat for the nation and 
for the world through giving inspiration, training, and equip- 
ment to American youth. " These seven opportunities repre- 
sent the mighty satisfactions which the college president enjoys. 
They help to constitute his work as one of the most interesting 
and happiest works which it is given to any man to do." 

Germany 

In Germany, principalships of elementary 
schools are awarded only upon successful ex- 
perience or upon examination written and oral. 
In Prussia, the examination may be taken by 
women after five years' service and by men after 
from five to eight years. The head of a secondary 
school is known differently in different States as 
Director or Rector. In Prussia both terms are 
used, but with a distinction in grade : it is Direc- 
tor of a Gymnasium and Rector of a Progym- 
nasium. In Saxony the terms are used in the 
reverse order. The heads of these schools are 
selected with great care, " not only for the pro- 
fessional responsibilities involved, but also be- 
cause through them the government expects to 
watch over the political development of future 



396 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

leaders in the State. ... By custom, however, the 
choice of Director is almost entirely left to the 
judgment of the provincial inspector — himself 
persona grata to the king and ministry who re- 
tain him in office." 1 The director is required to 
teach a stipulated number of hours weekly. He 
usually lives in the building, has heavy clerical 
work to do, exercises supervision over from 
twenty to thirty teachers, generally his equals in 
scholarship, 2 and has been characterized as " the 
hardest-worked man in the profession." While 
his salary is but little larger than that of his ex- 
perienced teachers, his status is high. He is free 
to take part in public life, and several of the direc- 
tors are members of the Landtag. 

The executive officer of each university is the 
Rector, who is elected from among their number 
by the " ordinary " 3 professors for a term of one 
year. The election is confirmed by the crown. 

1 Russell, op. cit., p. 376. 

2 "The head teachers, rectors, or directors, as they are variously 
called, are always men, and their duties consist, not only of super- 
vision, examination, and general arrangement, but also of regular 
teaching. These lessons duly appear on the time-table, varying in 
number according to the size of the school ; and the organization of 
the school renders them automatic and compulsory." — Winch, op. 
cit., p. 32. 8 See p. 256. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 397 

The Rector directs the current business and pre- 
sides at the meetings of the University Senate and 
the various committees. This Senate is com- 
posed of the Rector, his immediate predecessor in 
office, the Deans of the faculties, and Senators 
elected for one year by the ordinary professors, 
and the University Judge. Each faculty elects 
its Dean from among its members, to serve for 
one year. Deans and Rectors receive remunera- 
tion beyond their regular salaries. 

France 

In France, elementary school principals are 
selected by examination. They receive a bonus of 
from $40 to $80 beyond their schedule salaries 
as regular teachers, and the schools which they 
manage have a small number of classes. In the 
secondary schools, the head of the lyc'ee is known 
as the proviseur, of a college as the principal 
Either position is a difficult one, though all ques- 
tions of discipline are in the hands of a special 
officer called the censeur. In addition to the sal- 
ary which he receives as a member of the teach- 
ing staff, he is paid an indemit'e de direction, which, 
together with dwelling, heating, and lighting, 



398 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

brings his income to the equivalent of $1750 to 
$3000. The Rector of each university is, as we 
have seen, a man of influence throughout his en- 
tire academy, performing virtually all the duties 
of the Minister. Each of the four faculties has 
its Dean. 

England 
In England, the head master of secondary 
schools is paid a much larger salary than his 
teachers, which results in the position being 
sought by those in the ranks and outside of them. 
In criticism of the condition, the English commis- 
sion of inquiry spoke as follows: "Even now, in 
England, can be found such anomalies as head- 
masters who have never been assistants ; inspec- 
tors who have never taught in the type of school 
they inspect; county and borough secretaries 
and organizers of ' education ' who were selected 
chiefly for their office experience or their power 
of public speaking." 



PART V. CLASS MANAGEMENT 

Chapter XXIV. The Training of the Teacher 
Chapter XXV. The Status of the Teacher 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 

" As the professional education of the lawyer and of the doctor 
is a contribution of the nineteenth century, so the professional 
education of the teacher is to be one of the worthiest contribu- 
tions of the new century to human affairs." — Thwing, "History 
of Education," p. 13. 

As we go along the line of the State's edu- 
cational agencies — school boards, superintend- 
ents, principals — we come at last to the one 
officer who is to the pupil the real embodiment 
of the State's interest in and authority over him — 
the teacher. The more distant agents have their 
influence upon him, it is true, and yet they re- 
cede into a more or less impersonal background 
in the presence of the teacher who is part of his 
everyday life. That this teacher shall, in the sus- 
tained, intimate, daily relationship of authority 
and influence, put into effect the educational 
purpose of the State, is the end for which the 
"system" exists. Hence, it is highly important 
that this teacher shall understand his business. 
His handling of the affairs of the classroom con- 

2D 4OI 



402 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

stitutes that branch of the art of school adminis- 
tration which we call class management. As in 
the case of school management, it is not within 
the province of this book to reach over into any 
presentation of the principles governing this art, 
all of which have been voluminously treated in 
the pedagogic literature of many languages. The 
scope of this volume limits us to a brief study of 
how the State regards this, essentially its most im- 
portant school official, and how it is stimulating him 
to better effort and recognizing his value to itself. 
That the delicate work of imparting instruc- 
tion, inspiring ideals, and influencing conduct 
should not be left to untrained hands seems 
axiomatic. And yet the fact is that in the schools 
of the civilized world a majority of the teachers 
employed have had no professional training. 
This is not because appreciation of the signifi- 
cance of this fact is wanting among the leaders 
of the world's nations, but rather because the 
people themselves have not yet mounted to a 
clear outlook upon human destiny, nor gained in- 
sight as to the relative values of its factors. Some 
day the race may be induced to spend as much 
upon education as it does upon alcohol and to- 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 403 

bacco, or upon warfare ; then will it insist that the 
culture of its children shall be placed in as com- 
petent hands as it is possible to secure, 

We are not without hope, however, as we survey 
the gains that the recent years have made in the 
professional training of teachers. The normal 
school, its idea derived from Prussia and its 
name from France, 1 is now a recognized feature in 
the educational systems of the leading nations. 

United States 
There are five chief classes 2 into which the 
schools for the training of teachers may be divided: 
the State normal schools, the private normal 
schools, the city training schools, the pedagogic 
departments in colleges and universities, and the 
teachers' colleges. Of the State normal schools, 
the first was established in Massachusetts, in 1839, 
New York following in 1844 ; 3 of the city train- 

1 Normal school is the prevailing title in France, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, Greece, and the United States ; Teachers' Seminary, in 
Germany, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark ; Training School, in 
Austria, Netherlands, England. 

2 See Dexter, op. cit., p. 377 et seq. 

8 According to G. W. A. Luckey, " The Professional Training of 
Secondary Teachers in the United States," Columbia Contributions, 
1903, p. 56, the early normal schools, with dates of establishment, 
were : — 



404 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ing schools, Philadelphia's was organized about 
1820 and Boston's in 1852. To-day there are 
about 200 public normal schools, State and munici- 
pal, supported by public appropriations of nearly 
$10,000,000 annually. 

For 1910, 1 196, divided among the groups of States as fol- 
ows : North Atlantic, 69 ; South Atlantic, 26 ; South Cen- 
tral, 23; North Central, 60; Western, 18. Of the individual 
States, only Delaware, Tennessee, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada 
are unrepresented ; the largest numbers are, New York, 18; 
Pennsylvania, 17; Wisconsin, 15; Massachusetts, 11. 

Of the total enrollment of normal pupils of 79,546, the 
leading States contribute : Pennsylvania, 9368 ; Michigan, 
6012; Illinois, 5535 ; New York, 5186 ; Missouri, 481 1. 

Of the total number of normal graduates of 13,725 : New 
York, 1902; Pennsylvania, 1840; Michigan, 1242. 

Of the students, 17,096 were male and 62,450 female; of 
the graduates, 1783 male and 11,942 female. 



Massachusetts, 




Minnesota, Winona . . 


i860 


Framingham . . . 


1839 


Wisconsin, Madison . . 


1862 


Westfield .... 


1839 


Maine, Augusta . . . 


1863 


Bridgewater . . . 


1839 


California, San Jose* . . 


1862 


New York, Albany . . 


1844 


Kansas, Emporia . . . 


1865 


Connecticut, New Britain 


1849 


Maryland, Baltimore . . 


1865 


Michigan, Ypsilanti . . 


1850 


Vermont, Randolph . . 


1867 


Rhode Island, Providence 


1852 


Nebraska, Peru .... 


1867 


Iowa, Iowa City . . . 


1855 


Indiana, Terre Haute . . 


1867 


New Jersey, Trenton . . 


1855 


West Virginia, Huntington 


1867 


Illinois, Bloomington . . 


1857 


Fairmont .... 


1867 


Pennsylvania, Millersville 


1859 


West Liberty . . . 


1867 



1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 1080 et seq. 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 



405 



Of the $9,266,195 of public appropriations, $6,630,357 was 
for support and $2,635,838 for buildings. Other sources of 
revenue were : — 



Tuition fees, etc 

Room rent ....... 

Board and other noneducational services 

Productive funds 

Private benefactions 

For increase of plant . . . . 

For endowment 

For current expenses .... 

This made a total of receipts of $12,595,891, 
State support has steadily increased : 
1890-91 . 
1895-96 .. 
1900-01 . 
1905-06 . 
1909-10 . 



£772,5 2 7 

42,980 

1,236,981 

i53>782 

103,000 

468,044 
137,563 



$1,695,616 
3,312,709 
3,777,702 
6,193,271 
9,266,195 



The courses are usually four years, modified to 
two years for high school graduates, although the 
requirements differ widely. On the whole, the 
trend is decidedly toward an increase of require- 
ments for admission looking toward the comple- 
tion of a four-year high school course as the 
condition, and the extension of the work of the 
schools until it shall be equivalent to the regular 
four-year college course leading to the bachelor's 
degree. The increasing demand for teachers of 



406 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

special branches is leading to a specialization of 
normal school courses in manual training, domes- 
tic science, agriculture, etc. 

There is a larger number of private normal 
schools to-day than twenty years ago, but the per- 
centage of the total number of normal students 
which they contribute has fallen in that time from 
twenty-three to twelve. It is easy to understand 
that the private schools, lacking heavy endow- 
ments, are unable to meet the competition offered 
by public institutions liberally supplied with 
public funds. 

There are, however, 68 private normal schools reported, with 
9015 students, and 1705 graduates, receiving from fees for 
tuition, room rent, board, etc., productive funds, State and city 
appropriations, private benefactions, and other sources, over 
#2,000,000. 

In the public normal schools 21.5 per cent of the students 
are male, while in the private schools, they constitute 29.4 per 
cent of the enrollment. 

The proper function of the normal schools 
would seem to be limited to the preparation of 
teachers for elementary schools. " It is only 
when the normal schools with limited resources 
have overreached their bounds and have en- 
deavored to prepare teachers for all grades of 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 40 7 

school work, that they have received well-merited 
criticism." 1 Although as long ago as 1895 tne 
Committee of Fifteen of the National Educa- 
tional Association promulgated the proposition 
that " the degree of scholarship required for 
secondary teachers is by common consent fixed at 
a collegiate education," to-day few of the States fix 
any requirement for licenses to teach in secondary 
schools beyond that for teaching in elementary 
schools. There is, however, a growing recogni- 
tion of the need of the training of teachers in 
institutions of collegiate and university grade. 
This need is met, so far as it is met, by many 
colleges and universities which maintain depart- 
ments or separate schools in the subject of Edu- 
cation and grant the bachelor's and advanced 
degrees in Pedagogy. Seven thousand students 
are taking courses in these departments. 2 

In 1832, New York University established courses in peda- 
gogy, but the work was dropped at the end of a year, to be 
revived in 1890 when its School of Pedagogy was organized. 
Brown University maintained a normal department for four 
years, beginning in 1850; Iowa established courses in 1873, 
and in 1878 the College of Normal Instruction. In 1879 

1 Luckey, op. cit., p. 61. 

2 In 1910, 2792 men and 41 71 women ; total, 6963. 



408 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Michigan University opened its department of Science and Art 
of Teaching, the first of its kind, having for its distinct purpose 
the professional training of secondary teachers. In 1888 Co- 
lumbia founded its Teachers College, and in 1901 the Uni- 
versity of Chicago organized its School of Education. 

Germany 
Germany is preeminently the land of the 
trained teacher. Elementary school teachers re- 
ceive their training in Volksschullehrersetnina- 
rien} The course in Saxony is six years in 
length, but the first three years are devoted to 
preparatory work equivalent to that done in sepa- 
rate preparatory schools in Prussia and Bavaria, 
where the normal school course is three years. 
Pupils enter the preparatory classes at the age of 
fourteen. In Prussia the normal schools are 
under the direction of the provincial school 
boards, and their expense is borne almost entirely 
by the State. Tuition is free to the students, 
who are admitted by examination in order of 
standing. Many of the students board at the 
schools, the State paying a large share of their 
living expenses. Graduation from these schools 

1 For full account of these schools, with bibliography, see 
I. L. Kandel, "The Training of Elementary School Teachers in 
Germany, 1 ' New York, 1910, p. 42 et seq. 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 



409 



is practically the only means of obtaining a 
position as teacher in the elementary schools. 
Graduates agree to teach wherever assigned for 
at least three years. The Prussian curriculum, 
which differs but slightly from those in Saxony 
and Bavaria, is arranged as follows (weekly- 
hours) : — 



Religion . . . . 

German . . . . 
French and English 

History . . . . 

Mathematics . . . 

Natural Science . . 

Geography . . . 

Writing . . . . 

Drawing . . . . 

Gymnastics . . . 

Music 

Pedagogy . . . . 

Methods . . . . 

Practice Teaching . 



Preparatory 



Normal 



3 
3 

2 

2 
1 
1 

1 

1 
3 

4 

3 

4 

4-6 



Although the proportion of women teachers in 
the elementary schools of Germany has been 
steadily increasing, it is now only 18 per cent of 
the entire number, and the training of women 



4IO SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

teachers has not received the same attention as 
the training of men. In Prussia there are sixty 
training schools for women, royal and municipal, 
in which the course is much the same as that 
given in the men's schools, except that the amount 
of practice teaching is usually not so great. 

The training of secondary teachers is a dis- 
tinctively different affair. The candidate for 
this grade of position spends from three to five 
years in a university. The course is not pre- 
scribed, but naturally he specializes in education 
and the subject he expects to teach. He must 
pass a severe examination (Staats-Examen), set 
by regularly appointed examining boards, in both 
scholastic and professional subjects. 1 Upon cer- 
tification, and he would not presume to teach any 
subject in which he had not been duly certifi- 
cated, he is assigned to a secondary school where 
he spends one year in training under the super- 
vision of the director. Following this Seminar- 

1 For text of " rules of the examination for the position of teacher 
in the higher schools of Prussia (September 12, 1898) " (p. 34) and 
"regulations for the practical training of candidates for the posi- 
tion of teacher in higher schools in Prussia" (March 15, 1908) 
(p. 61), see John F. Brown, "The Training of Teachers for 
Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States, 11 Macmillan, 
1911. 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 411 

jahr comes his Probejahr, during which he 
gives class instruction under the guidance of the 
experienced teachers. Only if this service is sat- 
isfactory does he proceed to a regular appoint- 
ment. There are no women teachers in the boys' 
schools, but in the girls' schools three fourths of 
the teachers are women, whose training, however, 
has been comparatively limited. Under recent 
regulations, women applicants must, by 191 3, 
have had university training, though no provision 
has yet been made for the Seminarjahr and 

Probejahr. 

France 

By the law of 1879, every department was 
required to maintain two normal schools, one 
for men and one for women, for the training 
of primary teachers. There are over 170 of 
these schools with 11,000 students. The schools 
are usually situated in the chief town of the 
department, and furnish somewhat less than two 
thirds of all the teachers. Students enter only 
upon competitive examination and must be 
between sixteen and eighteen years of age, hold 
the brevet elementaire, a certificate secured upon 
examination, agree to remain in the public school 



412 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

service for ten years, and be in sound physical 
condition. The institutions are boarding schools, 
and the students are practically supported by 
the State. The curriculum extends over three 
years and is uniform throughout all the schools. 1 
Teachers for service in secondary schools are 
trained in the Higher Normal School, a profes- 
sional school of the University of Paris. The 
number of students admitted is limited, and 
admission is upon written and oral examination 
open only to holders of the bachelor's degree 
between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. 
The course extends over three years and in- 
cludes practice teaching. Upon its completion 
the student becomes a candidate for the degree 
of agr'eg'e, granted only upon rigid examination 
by the department of education. This degree 
secured, the holder is entitled to teach in the 
higher grades of the lyc'ees or colleges. 

England 

Elementary school teachers are trained either 
by a sort of apprentice system or in training 

1 For full account of these schools see Farrington, " Primary 
Schools, 1 ' p. 140 et seq. 



THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER 413 

colleges. Under the former method, pupils hav- 
ing attended a secondary school up to the age of 
sixteen are given practical training either as pupil- 
teachers or as bursars. As a pupil-teacher the 
student receives training in teaching in a public 
elementary school for one year, together with 
certain theoretical instruction satisfying regula- 
tions of the Board of Education. As a bursar, 
he attends a secondary school, with the financial 
assistance of a government grant, for one year, at 
the end of which he may become a student- 
teacher or enter a training college. In either 
case, applicants must be of good character and 
health, and sign a declaration of intention to 
become an elementary school teacher. 

The training colleges are grouped into (i) sep- 
arate institutions devoted solely to the training of 
teachers, (2) educational departments of univer- 
sities, and (3) departments of other higher grade 
institutions. Some of the training colleges are 
" residential " and some " day-training." They 
are supported by means of grants, tuition fees, 
and donations. Admission is given, on examina- 
tion, to applicants seventeen years of age, of 
good health, who agree to teach for a stated 



414 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

term of years. The course is normally of two 
years. 1 

The training of secondary school teachers is 
but meagerly organized. It is only since 1908 
that the Board of Education has made grants 
to institutions training secondary teachers. The 
universities grant diplomas in teaching upon 
examination to students who have completed a 
post-graduate year in an educational course of 
professional studies and practice teaching. 

1 For full description, with bibliography, see Sandiford, op. cit. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 

" A Prayer for all Teachers " 

"We implore thy blessing, O God, on all the men and 
women who teach the children and youth of our nation, for 
they are the potent friends and helpers of our homes. Into 
their hands we daily commit the dearest that we have, and 
as they make our children, so shall future years see them. 
Grant them an abiding consciousness that they are coworkers, 
with thee, thou great teacher of humanity, and that thou 
hast charged them with the holy duty of bringing forth from 
the budding life of the young the mysterious stores of char- 
acter and ability which thou hast hidden in them. Teach 
them to reverence the young lives, clean and plastic, which 
have newly come from thee, and to realize that generations 
still unborn shall rue their sloth or rise to higher levels through 
their wisdom and faithfulness. Gird them for their task with a 
double measure of thy patience and tranquillity, with a great 
fatherly and motherly love for the young, and with special 
tenderness for the backward and afflicted. Save them from 
physical exhaustion, from loneliness and discouragement, from 
the numbness of routine, and from all bitterness of heart. 

" We bless thee for the free and noble spirit that is breath- 
ing with quickening power upon the educational life of our 
day, and for the men and women of large mind and loving 
heart who have made that spirit our common possession by 
their teaching and example. But grant that a higher obedience 
and self-restraint may grow in the new atmosphere of freedom. 

4i5 



41 6 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

We remember with gratitude to thee the godly teachers of our 
own youth who won our hearts to higher purposes by the 
sacred contagion of their life. May the strength and beauty 
of Christlike service still be plainly wrought in the lives of 
their successors, that our children may not want for strong 
models of devout manhood on whom their characters can be 
moulded. 

" Do thou reward thy servants with a glad sense of their 
own eternal worth as teachers of the race, and in the heat of 
the day do thou show them the spring by the wayside that 
flows from the eternal silence of God and gives new light to 
the eyes of all who drink of it." — Walter Rauschenbusch, 
"For God and the People; Prayers of the Social Awaken- 
ing," p. 83. 

And, finally, what of the position of the teacher ? 
How does his State reward him, and in what 
esteem does it hold him ? The interest of the 
State in its teachers is only an indirect one. It 
can manifest toward them no special attitude 
except that based upon the one vital interest 
which the school system exists to further — the 
interest of the pupils. That the pupils' interest 
demands the service of trained and properly re- 
munerated teachers is clear. We have sketched 
rapidly the attempts made toward the professional 
training of the teacher; it remains to appraise 
the status of the teacher in service. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 



417 



In the elementary schools, the number of teachers currently 
reported is as follows : — 



Austria , 

Belgium 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain and Ireland : 

England and Wales . . 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Greece 

Hungary 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Russia 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Japan 

Australia 

Canada 

Argentine 

Chili 

Peru 

United States 



Men 


Women 


65,740 


31,279 


66,045 
137,213 


85,869 
29,384 


41,664 
5,370 

5,735 


130,423 
14,478 

9,509 


21,779 

15,867 

4,95i 


44,858 
9,655 
3,013 


8,781 


5,905 


108,300 


398,153 



Total 



97,019 

20,330 

151,914 

166,597 

172,087 
19,848 
15,244 
4,346 
43,203 
66,637 
25,522 

7,964 

170,894 

19,925 

14,686 

122,038 

20,287 

34,434 
18,571 

4,729 
3,4oo 

506,453 



It is of interest to note the extremes of policy as to the em- 
ployment of men and of women teachers, the schools of Ger- 
many showing a great preponderance of men and those of 
Canada an equal preponderance of women. 



2E 



4i8 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



PERCENTAGE OF MEN AND OF WOMEN TEACHERS 




ENGLAND AND WALES 
75.8 



UNITED STATES 
78.6 



CANADA 

82.9 



MEN 



WOMEN 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 



419 



The number of women teachers seems to be steadily on the 
increase : — 

Percentage of Men Teachers 



United States France 

1870-71 41.0 1891-92 . . . . 

1889-90 34.5 1906-07 . . . . 

1908-09 21.4 



45.1 
434 



United States 

There is great variation as between one local- 
ity and another in the matter of salaries. The 
common school system paid its men at the last 
report a monthly wage averaging $63.39, * ts 
women, $50.08; in all, an average of $57. By 
divisions the average was : — 



North Atlantic 


. 


. $7 2 -4i 


South Atlantic 


• > 


. 42.19 


South Central 


. 


. 47-87 


North Central 


. 


• 55-47 


Western 


. 


• 59-27 



California led the States, with $93.84 ; New York 
paid $86.60 ; Nevada, $81.68 ; New Jersey, $75.22. 
At the other extreme were North Carolina, $33.20 ; 
Mississippi, $35.86; Vermont, $35.87; Maine, 
$36.12; Kentucky, $39.37 ; Virginia, $39.57. A 
very few States have enacted laws fixing certain 



420 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



salary minima, among them Maryland, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. 
Salaries in the cities are, of course, much larger 
than those of rural teachers. According to the 
report of the National Educational Association's 
committee, the men teachers in the high schools 
average $1303 and the women $903, or a general 
average of #1046, the extremes being for cities 
of 1,000,000 population, men, $1886; women, 
$1387; general, $1615, and for cities of 8000 to 
10,000, men, $740; women, $622; general, $650. 
For the elementary schools the figures are : — 



Cities of 1,000,000 . . . 
Cities of 8000-10,000 . . 
All cities 8000 and upward . 



Men 



$H43 

448 

Il6l 



Women 



$882 

443 
650 



General 



$906 
446 
66l 



In contrast with this, Dr. Foght claims that " we 
pay rural teachers throughout the United States 
on an average less than $300 per annum." 1 

The salaries of college and university professors 
do not run much above those paid to high school 
teachers in the largest cities. President Thwing 



1 Op. cit., p. 100. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 42 1 

places $2000 as the average of the " most highly 
paid " and $1500 as that of the other professors. 
" Two or three colleges are paying to a few teach- 
ers salaries of $7000, and perhaps ten colleges 
are paying $4000 at least. The present tendency 
is toward an increase of the highest salaries and 
toward a decrease of the stipend of new instruc- 



tors 



» 



Pension funds are sustained in some cities. 
Few States have legislated in this direction, 
though New York and New Jersey have laws 
state-wide in their application. 2 In practically 
every case the funds are maintained by the as- 
sistance of the teachers who contribute a per- 
centage of their salaries. Where tested, as in 
Ohio and Minnesota, involuntary contributions 
have been declared unconstitutional. The Car- 
negie Foundation for the advancement of teach- 
ing controls the income of $15,000,000 and pen- 
sions the professors of certain public and private 
colleges and universities which meet a stipulated 

1 " College Administration," p. 165. 

2 For summary of teachers' retirement laws in seven States and 
thirty-one cities of the United States, see Fourth Annual Report of 
the Secretary of the Board of Retirement, Department of Education, 
The City of New York, 191 1, p. 22. 



422 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



standard of excellence. Provision is also made 
from this fund for the widows of professors. 

Germany 
" Comparing relative values and differences in 
purchasing power of money, the elementary 
school teacher receives a higher remuneration 
for his service than his colleagues in England, 
France, or America." 1 Each State fixes a mini- 
mum schedule to which the local authorities 
add such amounts as local conditions warrant 
and demand. The schedules of the leading 
States provide : — 



States 



Prussia . . 
Bavaria . . 
Saxony . . 
Wiirtemberg 
Hamburg . 



Salaries in First 
Year of Service 



Maris 

II20 

BOO 

900 

I200 

1600 



$266.50 
I9O.40 
214.20 
285.60 
380.80 



Highest Salaries Paid after 
Stated Years of Service 



Marks 

3300 
2800 
30OO 
2600 
460O 



$785.40 
666.40 
714.OO 
618.80 

IO94.80 



Years 
31 
34 
24 
29 
25 



There are also comprehensive pension systems. 
In Prussia, a teacher, if incapacitated, may retire 
on one third salary. Each further year of serv- 
ice adds one sixtieth of the annual salary to 

1 Kandel, op. at., 'p. 91. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 



423 



the amount of the annuity, until the maximum 
of three fourths is reached. Provision is also 
made for the widows and orphans of deceased 
teachers, the annuity ranging from $75 to $875. 

As to the secondary schools, the teacher re- 
ceives no salary during either his Seminarjahr or 
his Probejakr. His first appointment is as a 
HilfslehreVy in which position he remains until 
there is a vacancy for a definite appointment as 
Oberlehrer, The Prussian schedule for Oberlehrer 
is: — 



Year 

1 

3 
6 

9 
12 

iS 
18 
21 

The schedules 



#622.60 
809.20 
975.80 
1118.60 
1285.20 
1428.00 
1570.80 
1713.60 

n Bavaria and Saxony are fully 
equal to these ; those in Wurtemberg are some- 
what lower. In all cases, rent allowance of from 
$70 to $300 is made. Legally definite pensions 
are provided in nearly all the States for incapacity 
after ten years, up to compulsory retirement 
at the age of 65 or 70. In some cases, it is pos- 



424 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

sible to get an annuity equal to the salary at the 
time of retirement, though the usual maximum is 
about 80 per cent of such salary. Widows and 
orphans are also provided for. In Wiirtemberg 
and one or two other States a deduction of 2 
or 3 per cent is made from salaries for the benefit 
of the retirement fund, but the practice in the 
other States is to the contrary. 

As to the salaries of university professors, there 
is no schedule, and the incomes of the individuals 
vary widely, depending upon rank, courses given, 
etc., and ranging from three or four hundred to 
ten or twelve thousand dollars. " Germany offers 
exceptional payment to brilliant teachers of sta- 
ple university subjects which are indispensable to 
large groups of students, gives generous pecuni- 
ary rewards to successful investigators in applied 
science, chemical, physical, or biological, and 
confers valued titles and decorations on her lead- 
ing scholars in all departments." * 

France 
In France, the salaries of all teachers are paid 
from the national treasury in accordance with the 
following schedule : — 

1 Eliot, op. cit., p. 98. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 



425 

















Male Teachers 


Female Teachers 


Class 


French 
Currency 


United 

States 

Currency 


French 
Currency 


United 

States 

Currency 


Probation 
Fifth . 
Fourth 
Third . 
Second 
First . 


ers 












Francs 
1 100 
1200 
I5OO 
l800 
2000 
2200 


$220 
240 
300 
360 
400 
440 


Francs 
IIOO 
1200 
1400 
l600 
1800 
200O 


$220 
240 
28o 
320 
360 
400 



For promotion from the fifth to the fourth 
grade and from the fourth to the third the re- 
quired term of service is five years ; from the 
third to the second, six years, the candidates being 
advanced in the order of seniority (laws of March 
31 and December 30, 1903). 

In addition to the salaries provided by the 
State, every commune is required by law to 
provide residence for the head teacher of its 
public schools (in the smaller communes an as- 
sistant teacher, if there is one, is generally 
the wife or sister of the principal), or its money 
equivalent, and a commune may increase the 
salary. Outside of the large cities, however, the 
local increase of salaries is seldom granted without 
the requirement of other teaching. 



426 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The salaries in the higher primary schools 
begin with a minimum of 2000 francs ($400) in 
the fifth class, and rise by successive increments 
of 300 francs to the third class, for which the 
successive increases are 200 francs each, so that 
teachers of the highest or first class receive 3000 
francs ($600). 

Teachers contribute 5 per cent of their sala- 
ries to a pension fund and may demand retire- 
ment at the age of fifty-five after twenty-five 
years' service. The annuity must be at least 
$120 for men and $100 for women. 

In the secondary schools the teaching staff is 
divided into grades based upon qualifications, ex- 
perience, and teaching ability, and the salary 
schedule is made up accordingly. There are, in 
consequence, six salary classes, and teachers are 
promoted from one class to the next at terms 
varying from two to five years. The shortest 
time in which a teacher may pass from the sixth, 
the lowest, grade to the first is nineteen years. 
In actual practice, the average teacher takes 
some five or six years more than this to reach 
his maximum. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 



427 



SCHEDULE FOR SEINE AND VERSAILLES 
In Dollars 



Class 

In lycees : 

Professeurs agregi .... 
Professeurs charges de cours . 
Professeurs de classes elhnentaire 

Repetiteurs x 

Surveillants, first order 2 . . 

In colleges 

First order 

Second order 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 100 


I200 


I300 


1400 


1500 


IOOO 


I060 


1 120 


1 180 


1240 


700 


780 


860 


940 


1020 


600 


640 


680 


720 


760 


760 


820 


880 


960 


IO40 


600 


680 


760 


840 


920 


520 


580 


640 


700 


760 



1600 
1300 

1 100 

840 



IOOO 

820 



1 Supervise and help boys during hours of preparation. 

2 Maintain discipline outside the classrooms. 



Every holder of the agr'eg'e receives $100 addi- 
tional to the foregoing. Women in the lycees 
are paid from $400 to $840. 

All teachers in the State schools are entitled to 
pensions on account of age and length of service, 
or of physical or mental disability, or of infirmities 
resulting " from exercise of function." There are, 
too, under certain conditions, pensions to widows 
and orphans. There is a 5 per cent deduc- 
tion on all salaries. No pension may exceed 
$1200. 



428 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

England 

In England, salaries are usually fixed by local 
authorities in accordance with a schedule. In 
London, these salaries run in twelve years from $500 
to $1000 for men and $450 to $750 for women. 
In other large cities the amounts are some- 
what smaller. The salary of men head teachers 
in some higher elementary schools reaches 
$ 1 600. 

As to teachers in the secondary schools it has 
been said that their salaries " vary from that of 
a respectable housemaid to that of a bishop or 
premier." Schedules are infrequent : $600 is a 
fair estimate of the average beginning salary 
for men and the annual increment rarely ex- 
ceeds $50. 

As far back as 1840, Great Britain devised a 
scheme of pensioning teachers in elementary 
schools, but then discontinued and later par- 
tially revived it. In 1899, legislation was enacted 
enabling teachers to contribute to a retirement 
fund and to receive disablement and superannua- 
tion allowances, these amounting in some cases to 
$320 for men and $210 for women. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 429 

Such in brief is the financial status of the 
teacher in the four leading educational nations. 
It is, however, unsatisfactory to make compari- 
sons of salaries as between countries. The cost of 
living varies widely, but more significant is the 
variation in the standard of living. It is not so 
much that some things — especially things one 
doesn't much want — cost less in Germany than 
they do in America, as that a given scale of 
necessary expenses will in Germany maintain a 
higher social position than in America. The true 
status of the teacher can be determined only when 
we take into consideration the purchasing power 
of his money together with at least two other 
factors, tenure and official and social recognition. 

In the United States, it has been said, the 
teacher as such has no status. 1 He is judged 
more decidedly upon his scholarship, culture, and 
personal force. To be a teacher counts for little 
one way or the other; to be a man counts for 
much, whatever may be the particular form of 
service he renders his fellow-men. 

1 " It is only Western civilization — it is almost only our much- 
lauded Anglo-Saxon civilization — that denies to the teacher a station 
in life befitting his importance as a social servant. 1 ' — William C. 
Bagley, " Craftsmanship in Teaching, 1 ' Macmillan, 191 1, p. 89. 



430 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Germany is the nation that stands forth as the 
leader in its official and practical recognition of 
the service of the teacher. There teaching is a 
clearly recognized and well-honored profession. 
Only the trained teacher is tolerated; the State 
itself certificates him and gives him a fixed official 
status. Once qualifying, he is sure of appointment, 
and once appointed he is sure of permanent em- 
ployment, and can be dismissed only by judicial 
disciplinary decision. In short, the teacher is a 
trained State officer and as such is accorded re- 
spect. Especially so is this true of the teachers of 
the secondary schools. Their status is well abreast 
that of the judge or doctor or clergyman. 
Dean Russell sums it up in these words : " On 
the whole, it must be conceded that the German 
teacher is tolerably well provided for. His in- 
come is small ; but in comparison with members 
of other learned professions, he is not far in the 
rear. He can live as his neighbors do, enjoy 
cultivated society, rear a large family, send his 
sons to the university, fit his daughters to be as 
cheerful, industrious, and frugal as their mother, 
and be assured of a competency in his old age." * 

i Op. cit., p. 386. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 43 1 

Likewise in France is the teacher a State offi- 
cer. Says Dr. Farrington of the elementary 
school teacher : " The teacher's tenure of office 
is practically assured as long as he chooses to 
continue in active work, and he is sure that he 
will not be turned out simply to make way for 
a younger man. Besides, too, wherever he may 
be placed, being really a government officer, he 
is often upheld by the thought that he has all the 
moral support of a great nation to sustain him. 
He is safe from all political influence whatsoever, 
and is dependent upon no man's petty whim." 1 
And of the secondary school teacher: " When the 
accounts have been cast, it must be admitted that 
the lot of the French regular secondary teacher 
is far from unsatisfactory. While apparently his 
salary is poor compared with many of those paid 
in America, relatively he is much better paid. He 
has labored hard to reach his position, but he has 
a government appointment which carries respect 
with it. His tenure is secure, promotion is slow 
but reasonably certain, and at retirement his pen- 
sion is assured. Furthermore, he is able to live 
in the community comfortably on an equality with 

1 " Primary School System," p. 69. 



43 2 



SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



those of his neighbors whose tastes are similar to 
his own." * 

Turning to England, a different picture pre- 
sents itself. It may be better understood when 
the following table is considered : — 
Number of Teachers in England and Wales, i 907-1 908 



Class of Teachers 


Men 


Women 


Total 


Certificated : 

Trained 

Untrained 

Uncertificated 

Others 


22,024 
9,181 
5,320 
5,7H 


26,752 

33,171 
38,946 
36,520 


48,776 
42,352 
44,266 
42,234 


Total 


42,239 


135,389 


177,628 



When the preponderance of untrained and un- 
certificated teachers and " others " is noted, it is 
scarcely to be wondered that their status is not 
attractive. Conditions are somewhat better in 
the secondary schools, but even there, lack of 
satisfactory tenure and salaries none too benefi- 
cent force many teachers to leave the profession 
after a few years' experience. 

One generalization we may safely venture: the 
trend everywhere is toward an advance in the 
remuneration of the teacher. And this is still 

1 " Secondary Schools, 1 ' p. 122. 



THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER 433 

true if we give to the word remuneration its 
broader and nobler definition. Happily, we have 
moved a long way from the days of ancient 
Greece and Rome, where teachers frequently were 
slaves and held in low esteem. As society be- 
comes more and more conscious of its own im- 
perative need of him, and above all, as he proves 
himself, so will the teacher come into his own. 



2F 



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BIBLIOGRAPHY 435 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 437 

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Edward C. Elliott : Some Fiscal Aspects of Public Educa- 
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Frederic E. Farrington : The Public Primary School System 
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Harold W. Foght : The American Rural School. Macmillan, 
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William T. Foster : Administration of the College Curric- 
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Charles B. Gilbert : The School and Its Life. Silver, 
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John M. Gillette : Vocational Education. American Book, 
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James C. Greenough : The Evolution of the Elementary 
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438 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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440 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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INDEX 



Aberdeen university, 131. 

Abnormal, schools for the, 35. 

Acquisition of knowledge, an aim, 13. 

Adelaide university, 147. 

Adjustment aim, 14. 

Advisory Council, Superintendent's, 
380. 

Age, legal school, United States, 313. 

Agrege, 112, 412, 427. 

Agricultural education, France, 112, 
291 ; Germany, 99 ; United States, 79. 

Agriculture, New York College of, 280. 

Aims of education, 13. 

Altruism, 10. 

American Home Economics Associa- 
tion, 83. 

American school system, 55. 

Amsterdam university, 140. 

Antioquia university, 151. 

Argentine, curriculum, 177; direction, 
371 ; organization, 148 ; support, 335. 

Arts, Bachelor of, 73, 125. 

Arts, Master of, 126, 248. 

Arts, Practical, Boston High School of, 
271. 

Asilo, 138, 186. 

Athenees, 135. 

Athens, university, 137. 

Australia, direction, 371 ; organiza- 
tion, 146; support, 335. 

Austria, direction, 369; organization, 
134 ; support, 334. 

Auxiliary education, 35, 39; England, 
121; France, 108; Germany, 89; 
United States, 61. 



B 

Bachelier, no. 

Bachelor, degree of, England, 125, 
257 ; United States, 73, 243. 



Basel university, 145. 
Bedford College, 129. 
Belgium, curriculum, 177; direction, 

369; organization, 135; support, 

334- 
Berlin Higher Commercial School, 289. 
Berlin university, 94. 
Berne university, 145. 
Beverly cooperative plan, 77. 
Birmingham university, 259, 295. 
Blow, Miss, and the kindergarten, 56. 
Board of Education, England, 234, 

367- 
Boards of Education, United States, 

346. 
Bogota university, 151. 
Bolivia, direction, 371; organization, 

149; support, 335. 
Bologna university, 138. 
Borough Council, 368. 
Boston, elementary curriculum, 200. 
Boston High School of Practical Arts, 

271. 
Bowdoin, 241. 
Brazil, curriculum, 177 ; direction, 371 ; 

organization, 149; support, 335. 
Brevet elementaire, 411. 
Brown university, 407. 
Buenos Ay res university, 148. 
Bureau of education, 345. 
Burgherschulen, 134. 
Business Administration, degree in, 

80. 



Cambridge, 125, 129. 

Canada, direction, 371 ; organization, 

147; support, 335. 
Cartagena university, 151. 
Censeur, 397. 

Centralization, educational, 3. 
Chancellor, university, 393. 
Character aim, 13. 



445 



446 



INDEX 



Chicago, elementary curriculum, 198; 
secondary curriculum, 224; univer- 
sity, 408. 

Chili, direction, 371; organization, 
150; support, 335. 

China, 15 ; organization, 152, 166. 

Christiania university, 140. 

Cincinnati Industrial High School, 
272; university, 267. 

City superintendent, 376. 

Classes enfanlines, 107. 

Classics and science, 214. 

Classification of feeble-minded, 38 ; of 
schools, 31. 

Class management, 26, 399. 

Cleveland elementary curriculum, 
203. 

Coeducation, 45, 161, 246. 

Coimbra university, 141. 

Colegios, 148. 

College, 109. 

College, 41; and university, 71; 
course, length of, 253 ; entrance 
requirements, 244; finances, 324; 
heads, 393. 

Collegiate studies, colonial, 240. 

Colombia, direction, 371; organiza- 
tion, 151. 

Colorado university, 248. 

Columbia university, 70, 408. 

Comite consultatif, 364. 

Comite du Contentieux, 363. 

Commerce, High School of, New York, 
268. 

Commercial education, England, 127, 
295; France, 112; Germany, 99, 
288; United States, 79. 

Commercial School, Kobe, 299; Leip- 
zig, 288. 

Commission scolaire, 365. 

Compulsory education, 22; England, 
338; France, 338; Germany, 337; 
other countries, 339 ; United States, 
316. 

Conseil deparlemental, 365. 

Conseil superieur, 363. 

Consolidation of rural schools, 60. 

Consultative Committee, 368. 

Continuation schools, England, 127; 
Germany, 97. 



Continuous schools, 160. 
Copenhagen university, 136. 
Cordoba university, 148. 
Cornell university, 71, 238, 280. 
County boards, 348. 
County council, 368. 
County superintendents, 378. 
Cours compUmentaire, 108. 
Crane, Mr., quoted, 75. 
Culture aim, 13. 
Culture and vocation, 178. 
Curriculum, the, 174. 

D 

Dalhousie university, 147. 

Dartmouth Commercial School, 276. 

Deaf, Missouri School for, 62. 

Dean, France, 383, 398; Germany, 
397 ; of women, 246. 

Defect, physical and mental, 36. 

Democracy and American schools, 54. 

Demotic schools, 137. 

Denmark, direction, 370; organiza- 
tion, 136; support, 334. 

Dentists, school, Germany, 331. 

Development aim, 13. 

Differentiation of courses, 180. 

Direction, school, 25, 341. 

Director, Germany, 395. 

Discipline aim, 13. 

District school, United States, 347. 

Doctor, degree of, England, 125; 
France, 112; Germany, 95 ; United 
States, 73. 

Dublin university, 132. 

Durham university, 259, 260. 

Duty, education as a, 22. 



Ecole centrale des Arts et Manufactures, 
291. 

Ecole maternelle, 107, 186. 

Ecole primaire, 107. 

Economics Association, 83. 

Economics introduced, 241. 

Ecuador, direction, 371; organiza- 
tion, 151 ; support, 335. 

Edinburgh university, 131, 



INDEX 



447 



Education, and schooling, 6; and the 
State, 1 6; a privilege, 17; compul- 
sory, 316; definition of, 6; norm of 
public, 23, 301 ; Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial, 77. 

Efficiency aim, 14. 

Egoism, 10. 

Election of studies, 181, 241. 

Elementary education, 34; curricu- 
lum, 194; England, 119; enroll- 
ment, 305 ; France, 107 ; Germany, 
88; United States, 58; vocational, 
264. 

Elwyn table, idiocy, 39. 

England, compulsory education, 338; 
commercial curriculum, 295 ; direc- 
tion, 366 ; elementary curriculum, 
209; free schools, 336; higher 
schools, 257; law curriculum, 297; 
norm of public education, S331 
organization, 119, 165; professional 
curriculum, 297; school manage- 
ment, 398; secondary curriculum, 
234; status of the teacher, 428; 
supervision, 385 ; technical curricu- 
lum, 294; theological curriculum, 
297; training of teachers, 412; 
vocational curriculum, 294. 

Entrance requirements, college, 244. 

Environment and education, 6. 

Eugenics the hope of the race, 12. 

Expenditures, college, 324; elemen- 
tary, 309; municipal, 321; rural, 
322. 



Feeble-minded, classified, 38. 

Financial statement, Pennsylvania, 
35°- 

Fiske, John, quoted, 312. 

Fitchburg plan, 268. 

Flexibility of curriculum, 181. 

Folkehqjskoler, 136. 

Folkhogskolar, 144. 

Fortbildungschulen, 97. 

Fox, education of the, 8, 

France, compulsory education, 338; 
direction, 362; elementary curricu- 
lum, 208; free schools, 336; higher 



education, 257; law curriculum, 
293 ; medicine curriculum, 292 ; 
norm of public education, 332; 
organization, 105, 164; professional 
curriculum, 292 ; school manage- 
ment, 397; secondary curriculum, 
231; status of the teacher, 424; 
supervision, 382 ; theology curricu- 
lum, 294; training of teachers, 411; 
vocational curriculum, 290. 

Franchise a privilege, 18. 

Frankfort Reform School, 229. 

Free textbooks, 314. 

Free tuition, United States, 313; 
other countries, 336. 

Froebel, 88, 188. 



Garfield's definition of education, 23. 

German estimate of American schools, 
168. 

Germany, compulsory education, 337; 
direction, 354; elementary curricu- 
lum, 207; free schools, 336; higher 
education, 255; norm of public 
education, 329; organization, 86, 
163; school management, 395; 
secondary curriculum, 227; status 
of teacher, 422; supervision, 381; 
training of teachers, 408 ; vocational 
curriculum, 287. 

Gifts, kindergarten, 189. 

Ginnasii, 138. 

Girls, education of, England, 128; 
France, 114; Germany, 1 01; United 
States, 83. 

Girton college, 129. 

Glasgow university, 131. 

Gottingen university, 256. 

Graduate courses, 248. 

Grammar schools, 65. 

Great Britain, curriculum, 177; direc- 
tion, 366; organization, 116. 

Greece, direction, 370; organization, 
137- 

Greek education, old, 15. 

Gymnasia, Denmark, 136; Greece, 
137; Netherlands, 139; Norway, 
140. 



448 



INDEX 



Gymnasium, Austria, 134; Germany, 
90, 134, 163, 227; Hungary, 137; 
Russia, 141 ; Switzerland, 145. 



H 

Haaren, Supt., on coeducation, 46. 
Eandelslehranstalt, Oejjentliche, 288. 
Harmonious development aim, 13. 
Harris, Supt., and the kindergarten, 

56. 
Harvard university, 69, 80, 238, 241, 

245, 325. 
Heidelberg university, 94. 
Hellenic schools, 137. 
Higher education, 40; curriculum, 

236; England, 124; France, in; 

Germany, 94; United States, 68. 
Higher Education Association, 76. 
High School, Industrial, Cincinnati, 

272. 
High School of Practical Arts, Boston, 

271. 
High Schools, 65, 322. 
Hilfsschulen, 89. 
History, first chair of, 241. 
Hobart university, 147. 
Hbhere Schulen, 90. 
Home Economics Association, 83. 
Humanities and sciences, 179. 
Hungary, direction, 370; organiza- 
tion, 137. 
Hunter, W. B., quoted, 267. 



Indiana university, 242. 

Industrial Art, School of, Germany, 
287. 

Industrial Education, Society for Pro- 
motion of, 77. 

Industrial schools, France, 112; Ger- 
many, 98; United States, 76. 

Infancy, the lengthening of, 10. 

Infant education, 32, 185; England, 
119; France, 106; Germany, 88; 
United States, 55. 

Infant School Society, New York, 56. 

Inspecteurs d'academie, 384; generaux, 
384. 



Inspectors, England, 385. 

Institut Catholique de Paris, 294. 

Institute National Agronomique, 291. 

Institutions of society, 9; the con- 
servation of, 20. 

Iowa university, 407. 

Ireland, direction, 369; organization, 
131- 

Italy, direction, 370; organization, 
138; support, 334. 



Japan, commercial curriculum, 299 ; 
curriculum, 177; direction, 372; 
elementary curriculum, 213; or- 
ganization, 153, 166; secondary 
curriculum, 235. 

Jersey City, secondary curriculum, 219. 

Johnstone, Dr., quoted, 36. 

Jurjew university, 142. 

Justification for public education, 19. 



Kaiserslautern School of Industrial 

Art, 287. 
Kindergarten, 3^, 185; Austria, 134; 

Belgium, 135 ; Germany, 88 ; Italy, 

138; Japan, 153; Netherlands, 139; 

Russia, 141 ; United States, 56. 
Knowledge, acquisition of, aim, 13. 
Kobe Commercial School, 299. 
Kreisschulinspcktoren, 382. 
Kyoto university, 154. 



Language, education in, 10. 

Languages, modern, introduced, 241. 

La Plata university, 148. 

Law curriculum, England, 297 ; France, 
293 ; United States, 284. 

Legal school age, United States, 313. 

Legal status of high schools, 323. 

Leicester school of Art, 294. 

Leipzig Commercial School, 288; uni- 
versity, 94. 

Letters, Bachelor of, 73; Doctor of, 
112. 



INDEX 



449 



Leyden university, 140. 

Libraries, school, 315. 

Licet, 138. 

Licencic, in, 257. 

Licentiate, 95. 

Liceos, Argentine, 149; Chili, 150. 

Liege university, 135. 

London university, 125, 129, 258. 

Los Andes university, 152. 

Los Angeles High School, 266; Indus- 
trial High School, 274; secondary 
curriculum, 222. 

Louisville, elementary curriculum, 
201. 

Low, President, quoted, 41. 

Lowell Textile School, 76. 

Lycee, France, 109; Portugal, 141. 

M 

Madrid university, 143. 

Man and the State, 14. 

Management, class, 26, 399; school, 
26, 389. 

Manchester university, 259, 295, 
297. 

Massachusetts, colonial, 318; General 
Court and Harvard, 325; Institute 
of Technology, 253, 278; school dis- 
trict, 347. 

Master's degree, England, 126; United 
States, 73, 248. 

Meals for school children, Germany, 331 ; 
United States, 315. 

Medical inspection, 315. 

Medicine curriculum, England, 297; 
France, 292; United States, 285. 

Melbourne university, 147. 

Mental defectives, 35; England, 121; 
France, 109; Germany, 89; United 
States, 64. 

Mental discipline, 179. 

Men teachers, proportion of, 417. 

Mexico, curriculum, 177; organiza- 
tion, 151; support, 335. 

Michigan Agricultural College, 80. 

Michigan university, 244, 245, 250, 
408. 

Milwaukee, elementary curriculum, 
200. 



Minneapolis, secondary curriculum, 

222. 
Minnesota School of Agriculture, 

79- 
Missouri School for Deaf, 62. 
Mittelschulen, 93. 
Montevideo university, 152. 
Moral training, 178, 211. 
Morrill act, 325. 
Moscow university, 142. 
Mt. Holyoke, 84. 
Munich university, 94. 
Municipal boards of education, 349; 

expenditures, 321. 
Municipal School of Art, England, 

294. 

N 

Nature, the paradox of, 10. 

Nebenclasse, 89. 

Netherlands, curriculum, 177; direc- 
tion, 370; organization, 139; sup- 
port, 334. 

New York City, elementary curricu- 
lum, 196; High School of Com- 
merce, 268. 

New York State College of Agricul- 
ture, 280. 

New York university, 80, 284, 407. 

New Zealand university, 147. 

Non-continuous schools, 160. 

Normal schools, France, 411; United 
States, 403. 

Norm of public education, 23, 301. 

Norway, curriculum, 177; direction, 
370; organization, 140; support, 
334- 



Oberlehrer, 423. 
Oberlin and coeducation, 84. 
Oberrealschule, 90, 228. 
Occupations, kindergarten, 190. 
Opportunity phase of education, 22, 

335- 
Organization, school, 25. 
Ortsschulinspektoren, 382. 
Oxford, 42, 125, 129, 257. 



45° 



INDEX 



Padua university, 138. 

Paradox of nature, the, 10. 

Paris, Institut Catholique de, 294. 

Paris Agricultural Institute, 291. 

Paris School of Arts and Manufac- 
tures, 291. 

Paris university, 42, in, 292, 412. 

Peabody, Mrs., and the kindergarten, 
56. 

Pedagogy, degrees in, 407. 

Peking university, 153. 

Pennsylvania university, 80, 285, 350. 

Pensions, teachers', England, 428; 
France, 426; Germany, 423 ; United 
States, 421. 

Philadelphia, elementary curriculum, 
199. 

Philosophy, Doctor of, 73, 95, 248. 

Physical training, 178, 211. 

Point system, 241. 

Popayan university, 151. 

Population, urban, 2. 

Portugal, direction, 370; organiza- 
tion, 141. 

Post graduate courses, 248. 

Practice of education, 1. 

Prague university, 42. 

Prayer for all teachers, a, 415. 

Preservation of the State, 21. 

President, college, 393. 

Primary inspectors, France, 385. 

Princeton university, 241, 245, 282. 

Principal, France, 297 ; United States, 
392. 

Privatdocent, 256. 

Privilege, education a, 17, 22. 

Probejahr, 411. 

Professional curriculum, England, 297 ; 
France, 292; Germany, 289; United 
States, 281; schools, England, 128; 
France, in; Germany, 100 ; United 
States, 82. 

Progymnasia, Germany, 91 ; Russia, 
141. 

Providence, secondary curriculum, 225. 

Provinzialschulkollegium, 381 . 

Proviseur, 397. 

Provost, 393. 



Prussia curriculum teachers' seminary, 
409; direction, 355 ; elementary cur- 
riculum, 207 ; organization, 87. 

Public education, norm of, 23, 301. 

Public schools, England, 123. 



Queen's College, London, 129. 
Quito university, 151. 



Realgymnasium, 90, 228. 

Realschulen, Germany, 91, 134; Hun- 
gary, 137. 

Rector, France, 383, 398; Germany, 
395- 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 79. 

Retirement laws, 421. 

Rewards of the teacher, 416. 

Rome, ancient, curriculum, 236. 

Rowe, L. S., quoted, 266. 

Rural Schools, 59; expenditures, 322. 

Russia, direction, 370; organization, 
141. 



St. Andrews university, 131. 

St. Louis, manual training, 78; sec- 
ondary curriculum, 222. 

St. Petersburg university, 142. 

Salamanca university, 143. 

Salaries of teachers, 419. 

Salle d'asile, 186. 

Santiago university, 150. 

Savage, education of the, 8. 

Schneider, Professor Herman, 267. 

School, created by society, 9; direc- 
tion, 25, 341 ; district, 347 ; li- 
braries, 315; management, 26, 389; 
organization, 25 ; supervision, 26. 

Schooling and education, 6. 

Schools, classification of, 31. 

Schuldeputation, 359. 

Schurz, Mrs., and the kindergarten, 
56. 

Science, and classics, 214; Bachelor of, 
73; Doctor of, 112, 248. 



INDEX 



451 



Scotland, direction, 369; organization, 
130- 

Scranton, elementary curriculum, 204. 

Scuole tecnice, 139. 

Secondary education, 39; curriculum, 
214; England, 121; France, 109; 
Germany, 90 ; United States, 65 ; 
vocational, 265. 

Sekundar-Schulen, 145. 

Seminaries, teachers', Germany, 408. 

Seminar jahr, 410. 

Sentiment and schools, 10. 

Sex of teachers, 417. 

Shantung college, 153. 

Shaw, Mrs., and the kindergarten, 57. 

Sheffield School, 79. 

Sloyd Seminarium, 144. 

Smaskolar, 143. 

Social efficiency aim, 14. 

Society and its institutions, 9. 

Society for Promotion of Industrial 
Education, 77. 

Socius, the individual a, 7. 

Soul liberalization aim, 14. 

Spain, direction, 370; organization, 
142 ; support, 335. 

Stadtschulrat, 382. 

State, aid, England, 120; and educa- 
tion, 16; boards of education, 346; 
man and the, 14; superintendency, 
376, the preservation of, 21. 

Statistics and personal equation, 303. 

Status of the teacher, 415. 

Stelzner, Investigation by Dr., 37. 

Studien-Anstalt, 102. 

Supervision, school, 26, 375. 

Sweden, direction, 370; organization, 
143 ; support, 334. 

Switzerland, direction, 370; organiza- 
tion, 145, 170; support, 335. 

Sydney university, 147. 



Taxation, exemption, 324. 

Teacher, status of, 415; training of, 

401. 
Teachers' pensions, 421. 
Technical curriculum, England, 294; 

France, 291 ; Germany, 287 ; United 



States, 278; schools, England, 127; 

France, 112; Germany, 100; United 

States, 79. 
Textbooks, United States, 314, 346. 
Theology curriculum, England, 297; 

France, 294; United States, 282. 
Tientsin college, 153. 
Tokyo university, 154. 
Toronto university, 147. 
Townsend Harris Hall, 226. 
Training colleges, England, 413; 

schools, United States, 403. 
Tuck, Amos, School, 276. 
Tufts College and coeducation, 49. 
Tuition, free, United States, 313; 

other countries, 336. 



U 

Union District Council, England, 368. 

United States, compulsory education, 
316; curriculum, 177; direction, 
341; elementary curriculum, 194; 
high schools, 322; norm of public 
education, 312; organization, 53, 
167 ; school management, 392 ; 
secondary curriculum, 216; status 
of teacher, 419; supervision, 375; 
training of teachers, 403. 

Universities, England, 125, 257; 
France, in, 257; Germany, 94, 
255, 361; United States, 70, 238, 
352. 

University, the, historically, 42. 

Upsala university, 143. 

Uruguay, direction, 372 ; organization, 
152. 

Utility aim, 13. 



Vassar college, 84. 

Venezuela, organization, 152. 

Vienna university, 134. 

Vocational education, 42 ; curriculum, 
261; England, 127; France, 112, 
290; Germany, 96; United States, 
76. 

Volkskolar, 143. 

Volksschukn, &$, 134, 157- 



45 2 



INDEX 



Vorgymnasia, 92. 
Vorschulen, 8g. 
Vortragende Rate, 357. 

W 

Washington, secondary curriculum, 

221. 
Wesleyan college, 238. 
William and Mary college, 241. 



Wisconsin university and coeducation, 

85. 

Women, Dean of, 246; teachers, pro- 
portion of, 418. 

Women's Educational Union, 128. 

Worcester, elementary curriculum, 205. 



Yale university, 79, 238, 241. 



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SNEDDEN and ALLEN. School Reports and School Efficiency. By David S. 
Snedden, Ph.D., and William H. Allen, Ph.D. For the New York Committee on 
Physical Welfare of School Children. Cloth. i2mo. xz'+ 183 pages. $1.30 net. 

VANDEWALKER, Nina C. The Kindergarten in American Education. By Nina 
C. Vandewalker, Director of Kindergarten Training Department, Milwaukee State 
Normal School. Cloth. xz'z'z'+ 274 pages. Portr., index, i2tno. $1.23 net. 

WARNER, Francis. The Study of Children and Their School Training. By 
Francis Warner. Cloth, xix + 264 pages. i2mo. $1.00 net, 

WINTERBURN and BARR. Methods in Teaching. Being the Stockton Methods 
in Elementary Schools. By Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, of Los Angeles, and 
James A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools at Stockton, Cal. 

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By WILLIAM CHANDLER BAGLEY 

Director of the School of Education, University of Illinois 

Craftsmanship in Teaching 

Cloth. i2mo. 247 pages. $1-25 net. 

Readers of " The Educative Process " and " Classroom Management " by 
Director W. C. Bagley of the University of Illinois will welcome the 
author's new book on "Craftsmanship in Teaching." The book is made 
up of a series of addresses given before educational gatherings, the sub- 
ject of the first one giving the book its name. In these addresses the 
personality of the author is more in evidence than is possible in his more 
systematic work, but the same sane, scientific point of view is apparent 
throughout. 

Classroom Management 

Cloth, xvii + jj2 pages. $1.25 net. 

This book considers the problems that are consequent upon the massing 
of children together for purposes of instruction and training. It aims to 
discover how the unit-group of the school system — the " class " — can be 
most effectively handled. The topics commonly included in treatises upon 
school management receive adequate attention: the first day of school; 
the mechanizing of routine; the daily programme; discipline and pun- 
ishment; absence and tardiness, etc. 

The Educative Process 

Cloth, xix + 3 58 pages. $1.25 net. 

The book aims to prevent a waste of energy on the part of the young 
teacher by setting forth a systematic and comprehensive view of the task 
that is to be accomplished by the school, with the working principles for 
the attainment of the end. The best idea for the author's plan of treat- 
ment can be had from his division of the book. Part I discusses the 
function of education and of the school in biological and sociological 
terms. Part II continues the same topic from the psychological stand- 
point. Part III deals with the functioning of experience in its relation to 
the educative process. Part IV treats of the relation of education to the 
three periods of child-development : the transitional, the formative, the 
adolescent. Part V considers educational values and the necessity of 
ideals in the educative process, and Part VI concludes with the technique 
of teaching. 



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The Philosophy of Education 

By HERMAN HARRELL HORNE, Ph.D. 

Professor of the History of Philosophy and of the History of Education, New York University 

Cloth. 8vo. xvii + 295 pages. $1.30 net. 

A connected series of discussions on the foundations of education in the 
related sciences of biology, physiology, sociology, and philosophy, and a 
thoroughgoing interpretation of the nature, place, and meaning of educa- 
tion in out world. The newest points of view in the realms of natural and 
mental science are applied to the understanding of educational problems. 
The field of education is carefully divided, and the total discussion is 
devoted to the philosophy of education, in distinction from its history, 
science, and art. 

The Psychological Principles of Education 

By HERMAN HARRELL HORNE, Ph.D. 

Cloth. i2mo. xiii + 433 pages. $1.75 net. 

The relationship of this book to the author's " Philosophy of Education" 
is that, whereas the first was mostly theory with some practice, this is 
mostly practice with some theory. This volume lays the scientific founda- 
tions for the art of teaching so far as those foundations are concerned with 
psychology. The author is the "middleman" between the psychologist 
and the teacher, taking the theoretical descriptions of pure psychology and 
transforming them into educational principles for the teacher. In the 
Introduction the reader gets his bearings in the field of the science of edu- 
action. The remainder of the book sketches this science from the stand- 
point of psychology, the four parts of the work, Intellectual Education, 
Emotional Education, Moral Education, and Religious Education, being 
suggested by the nature of man, the subject of education. A special fea- 
ture is the attention paid to the education of the emotions and of the will. 

Idealism in Education 

Or First Principles in the Making of Men and Women 
By HERMAN HARRELL HORNE, Ph.D. 

Author of " The Philosophy of Education" and " The Psychological Principles of Education" 
Cloth. i2tno. xxi + 183 pages, index. $1.23 net; by mail, $1.34. 

Professor Home here discusses three things which he regards as funda- 
mental in the building of human character, — Heredity, Environment, and 
Will. His method of handling these otherwise heavy subjects makes the 
book of interest, even to the general reader. 



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A TEXT-BOOK IN THE HISTORY 
OF EDUCATION 

By PAUL MONROE 

Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University 

Cloth. Crown. 8vo. xxiii + 772 pages. $1.90 net. 

The aim of this book is to emphasize the great typical educational movements 
in thought and practice, and to give the student very definite conceptions of com- 
paratively few leaders rather than to treat a multiplicity of more or less unrelated 
facts and a multitude of men with diverse ideas. In each general topic treated, 
enough material is given to elucidate the main characteristics. The contributions 
of two or three of the most representative men are discussed for the same pur- 
pose. Since the restrictions of space and the working plan of the author forbid 
further elaboration, the text at almost every point is suggestive rather than ex- 
haustively conclusive. A selected bibliography and a series of questions or sug- 
gestive topics accompany each chapter, to assist the student in further study. 
Chronological tables are given in connection with the more important historical 
periods, so that the student may get a conspectus of the period under considera- 
tion, and the relation of the educational to other aspects of historical develop- 
ment. A detailed analysis of the book aids in preserving a correct perspective 
and the proper relationship between the various topics. The numerous illustra- 
tions add a realistic touch to the discussion of the more practical aspects of the 
subject. 

BRIEF COURSE IN THE HISTORY 
OF EDUCATION 

By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. 

Cloth. i2mo. xviii + 409 + iv pages. $1.25 net. 

This condensation of A Text-Book in the History of Education has been pre- 
pared to meet the demands of normal and training schools and of those colleges 
that have not sufficient time at their disposal to master the contents of a larger 
text. While the text at every point aims to be suggestive rather than exhaustive, 
even in this abbreviated form the volume contains more material than most other 
texts on the subject. The methods of presentation are the same as in the larger 
work. 

A SOURCE BOOK OF THE HISTORY 
OF EDUCATION 

FOR THE GREEK AND ROMAN PERIOD 
By PAUL MONROE 

Cloth. 8vo. xiii + 515 pages. $2.25 net. 



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